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ARCHITECTURAL 
DRAWING 


ARCHITECTURAL 
DRAWING 


6 


WOOSTER.  BARD  FIELD 

ARCHITECT 

ASSISTANT    PROFESSOR    OF   ENGINEERING   DRAWING 
THE    OHIO  6TATE  UNIVERSITY 


WITH    AN    INTRODUCTION 
AND    ARTICLE     ON     LETTERING 


THOMAS  E.  FRENCH 

PROFESSOR  OF  ENGINEERING   DRAWING 

THE    OHIO   STATE  UNIVERSITY 
Eighth  Impression 


i®vc 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 

NEW   YORK   AND    LONDON 
1922 


Copyright,  1922,  by  the 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 


PRINTED   IN   THE   UNITED   STATES   OF   AMERICA 


THE     MAPue    PRESS    -    YORK    PA 


^WA 


CD 


z.'too 


PREFACE 

■%  An  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  subject  of  Architectural  Drawing  presents  so  many  ramifications 

that,  to  cover  them  fully,  several  volumes  of  text  and  many  expensive  plates  are  required.     Almost  with- 

^       out  exception  these  books  and  i)ortfolios  each  deal  with  but  one  phase  of  the  subject  and  go  into  that  at 

some  length.     For  this  reason  the  architectural  student  must  ha\e  access  to  a  rather  voluminous  library 

or  else  invest  in  a  number  of  more  or  less  expensive  books.     Even  with  such  a  library  available,  the 

average  student  is  at  a  loss  to  know  how  to  go  about  his  studies,  and  where  there  is  such  an  abundance  of 

\        material  to  select  from,  finds  it  very  difficult  to  proceed  intelligently.     For  one  who  is  under  the  direction 

^      of  an  instructor,  this  difficulty  is  not  so  pronounced,  but  the  latter  arrangement  presents  to  him  another 

^     problem.     He  is  usually  working  in  a  class  with  a  number  of  others  all  of  whom  need  the  material  at  the 

N     same  time. 

^  Both  teaching  and  office  experience  have  proved  that  there  are  certain  classes  of  information  which 

*^    should  be  at  the  draftsman's  elbow  at  all  times.     This  is  true  whether  he  be  a  student  or  employed  in  an 
office. 

An  effort  has  been  made  in  the  preparation  of  this  book,  to  provide  for  the  student  those  things 
^    which  are  of  fundamental  importance  in  his  initial  study  of  the  subject,  together  with  a  careful  presenta- 
tion of  some  of  the  more  important  points  that  are  usually  left  for  him  to  acquire  during  his  office  experi- 
ence after  he  has  left  school. 

The  material,  though  prepared  primarily  for  the  architectural  student,  will  be  found  invaluable  to 
anyone  who  deals  with  architectural  work.  It  will  enable  the  artisan,  in  any  of  the  building  or  allied 
trades,  to  read  the  drawings  and  take  off  the  quantities  of  his  work  for  estimation  purposes.  He  can 
then  execute  the  work,  according  to  the  plans  and  specifications,  without  being  dependent  upon  another 
for  the  interpretation  of  the  drawings. 

The  articles  are  taken  up  in  the  sequence  in  which  the  work  naturally  goes  forward  on  the  board. 
This  is  not  usually  the  order  of  procedure  in  studying  the  subject,  but  seems  to  be  the  logical  way  of 
o  recording  it,  since  it  gives  the  reader  a  comprehensive  and  well-ordered  idea  of  the  entire  process.  For 
the  beginner,  a  preliminary  explanation  is  made  of  the  method  of  Orthographic  Projection  and  its 
application  to  architectural  drawing.  This  is  followed  by  a  description  of  the  drawing  instruments, 
after  which  are  given  those  geometric  solutions  most  used  by  the  architect.  Preliminary  sketches, 
Scale  and  Detail  Drawings,  and  the  Orders  of  Architecture  are  then  taken  up.  Under  the  subject  of 
Scale  Drawings  are  given  t\-pical  examples  of  drawings  which  represent  buildings  of  different  materials 
and  methods  of  construction,  to  show  the  student  how  prominent  architects  have  taken  care  of  such 
conditions.  Notes  have  been  added  calling  attention  to  the  particular  points  illustrated.  In  addition 
to  the  instruction  in  drawing,  is  an  article  on  Lettering  as  applied  to  architectural  work. 

A  suggested  course  of  study  has  been  added  as  a  guide  to  the  student.     This  is  presented  in  such  a 

way  as  to  serve  as  an  outline  for  either  a  simple  or  a  comprehensive  course.     It  gives  the  student  a 

definite  order  of  procedure  but  makes  it  optional  with  him  as  to  the  extent  of  his  work  in  each  department. 

^^'hiie  the  book  deals  primaril\-  with  architectural  drawing,  suggestions  are  made  for  further  study 

into  both  architectural  design  and  engineering. 

vii 

2G09.Sii 


C 


CO 


PREFACE 


The  architectural  and  building  terms  will  pro\ide  a  working  vocabulary  and  an  acquaintance  with 
building  parts. 

The  drafting  room  data  will  prove  useful  in  the  preparation  of  drawings. 

The  size  of  the  book  and  style  of  binding  have  been  found  by  experience  to  be  the  most  practicable 
for  use  on  the  drav\ang  board. 

The  help  and  encouragement  of  those  architects  whose  work  so  well  illustrates  the  text,  are  greatly 
appreciated.  The  use  of  drawings  for  buildings  which  have  actually  been  erected,  lends  to  the  book  a 
feeling  of  realness  which  could  not  have  been  attained  by  drawings  invented  for  the  occasion.  Apprecia- 
tion is  hereby  expressed  also  to  J.  S.  MacLean  of  Columbus,  Ohio,  for  his  practical  criticism  of  the  mill 
work  details  and  especially  to  Professor  Thos.  E.  French  for  his  kindly  interest  and  helpful  suggestions 
and  for  his  Introduction  and  Article  on  Lettering. 

VV.  B.  F. 

Columbus,  Ohio, 
June,  1922. 


vin 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Introduction i 

Articlk  I.     Graphic  Methods  of  Representation 5 

Article  II.     Drawing  Instruments  and  their  Use 9 

Article  III.     Geometric  Methods 11 

Article  IV.    Preliminary  Sketches 16 

Perspective 21 

Isometric 29 

Oblique 31 

Shades  and  Sliadows 33 

Rendering 43 

Article  V.     Scale  Drawings 46 

Article  VI.    Detail  Drawings 85 

Article  VII.     The  Orders  of  Architecture 105 

Article  VIII.     The  Acanthus  Leaf 125 

Article  IX.     Mouldings 127 

Article  X.     Architectural  Lettering 131 

Outline  of  Study 143 

Reference  Books 147 

Architectltral  AND  Building  Terms  .    .    .■ 151 

Alphabetical  Index 157 


IX 


INTRODUCTION 

By   Thomas  E.  P'rench' 

Architecture  is  one  of  the  fine  arts,  taking  its  place  along  with  sculpture,  painting  and  music.  As 
an  art  it  is  creative,  rather  than  representative  and  involves  perhaps  a  greater  diversity  of  skill  and 
knowledge  than  do  any  of  the  others.  To  be  successful  in  it  as  a  profession  there  is  required  in  the  first 
place  a  certain  degree  of  native  talent,  and  second,  an  extensive  and  thorough  technical  training.  The 
true  architect  has  an  inherent  sense  of  beauty  of  form  and  color — an  instinctive  feeling  of  proportion  and 
balance  and  s\iiimetry  and  harmony.  This  natural  equipment  when  coupled  with  historical  knowledge 
and  technical  ability  enables  him  to  design  buildings  that  are  not  only  well  adapted  to  their  purpose, 
structurally  economical  and  safe,  but  are  expressive,  satisfying,  and  pleasing  to  the  eye. 

The  architect  is  essentially  an  artist,  keen  in  appreciation  as  well  as  facile  with  the  pencil,  and  with 
a  strongly  developed  constructive  imagination.  He  must  be  able  to  think  in  three  dimensions,  to  visu- 
alize the  appearance  of  a  proposed  piece  of  work  and  see  the  picture  of  it  in  his  mind's  eye  as  clearly  as 
if  it  were  standing  erected  before  him.  This  imaginatix-e  ability  is  not  concerned  alone  with  the  exterior 
effect,  but  extends  through  the  interior.  The  architect  walks  through  a  building  whose  proposed  plan 
lies  before  him  on  the  table  just  as  surely  as  he  will  walk  through  the  actual  structure  later  when  it  has 
been  built.  The  plan  to  him  is  not  simply  a  diagram  showing  the  location  and  arrangement  of  rooms. 
He  feels  himself  in  the  house,  sees  the  vistas,  the  heights  of  the  ceilings,  the  proportions  of  rooms,  and 
the  prospects  from  the  windows.  He  visualizes  the  color  scheme  which  he  would  propose,  the  furniture 
and  fittings,  then  by  sketches  and  drawings  conveys  his  thoughts  to  client  and  contractor. 

Architectural  drawing  is  the  graphic  language  by  which  the  architect  develops  and  records  his 
ideas,  and  communicates  his  instructions  to  the  builder.  Taken  as  a  whole  it  is  a  language  with  many 
varied  forms  of  expression  and  is  capable  of  numerous  divisions  and  subdivisions. 

One  kind  of  classification  might  be  based  on  the  methods  of  execution,  separating  freehand  sketches, 
made  without  ruling  or  measurement,  from  scale  drawings,  which  are  measured  and  drawn  accurately 
with  instruments. 

Another  classification  would  be  in  the  distinction  between  drawings  of  the  structure  made  as  it 
would  appear  to  the  eye,  or  perspective  drawing  and  drawings  made  to  give  the  actual  forms  and  sizes, 
or  projection  drawing. 

The  student  in  Architecture  should  be  trained  in  freehand  drawing.  The  pencil  is  the  best  all- 
around  medium  but  he  should  know  the  technicjue  of  pen-and-ink,  charcoal  and  water-color.  Drawing 
from  the  antique,  still-life  and  life  are  usually  included  in  the  work  of  an  architectural  school,  but  the 
student  should  supplement  these  courses  by  constant  practice.  He  should  form  the  habit  of  carrying 
a  sketch-book  and  rule  and  making  notes  of  all  sorts  of  architectural  details.  This  not  only  gives  prac- 
tice in  sketching,  but  accumulates  a  collection  of  information  and  teaches  him  the  habit  of  careful 
observation.     He  learns  to  keep  his  ej'es  open. 

'  Professor  of  Engineering  Drawing,  The  Ohio  State  University,  Columbus,  O. 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


He  must  also  be  trained  in  accurate  drawing  with  instruments,  meclianical  drawing,  as  distinguished 
from  freehand  drawing.  This  includes  skill  in  the  use  of  the  drawing  instruments,  a  knowledge  of  the 
draftsman's  methods  of  laying  out  geometrical  figures  and  problems  and  a  thorough  acquaintance  with 
orthographic  projection. 

A  great  French  architect,  M.  Viollet  le  Due,  once  said,  "The  architect  ought  not  only  to  possess  a 
large  accjuaintance  \nth  descriptive  geometry  but  also  to  be  so  familiar  with  perspective  as  to  be  able  to 
draw  a  design  or  parts  of  a  design  in  e\ery  aspect."  This  statement  is  as  true  today  as  when  originally 
made  more  than  sLxty  years  ago.  Descriptive  geometr\-  is  the  basis  of  orthographic  projection  and  a 
subject  of  preeminent  value  for  training  the  constructive  imagination,  in  addition  to  its  constant 
practical  application  on  the  drawing  board.  It  is  a  fascinating  study  but  might  be  found  more  or  less 
difficult  to  read  without  the  aid  of  an  instructor. 

Perspective  drawing  as  used  by  the  ordinary  artist  in  representing  an  object  before  him,  requires 
only  the  observation  of  a  few  simple  phenomena  and  rules.  As  used  b>-  the  architect  it  becomes  a  mathe- 
matical subject,  "Conical  Projection,"  since  his  problem  is  not  that  of  sketching  an  existing  building, 
but  of  making  a  drawing  of  the  exterior  or  interior  of  a  proposed  structure  as  it  will  actually  appear  to 
the  observer  when  it  is  built.  He  needs  this  knowledge  and  facility  in  drawing  in  perspective  not  alone 
to  show  his  clients  the  appearance  of  the  building  but,  more  important,  for  his  own  use  in  studying  masses 
and  proportions.  A  roof  or  dome  for  example  will  present  an  entirely  different  effect  when  viewed  from 
the  ground  than  it  does  on  the  working  drawing  used  in  building  it. 

The  architect  thinks  on  paper,  first  in  freehand  sketches,  made  with  a  rapid  sure  stroke,  in  perspec- 
tive or  projection  as  the  case  requires,  then  with  T-square  and  instruments.  To  his  client  he  presents 
his  ideas  usuall}'  in  the  form  of  sketch  plans  and  pictorial  sketches,  as  these  arc  more  easily  understood 
by  the  layman  than  are  working  drawings.  They  often  have  the  suggestion  of  color  added  by  water- 
color  or  crayon  pencils. 

To  the  builder  and  artisan  however  he  con\eys  his  ideas  and  instructions  by  working  drawings,  so 
called  because  they  can  be  worked  from  accurately.  These  are  drawings  made  to  scale,  on  the  princi- 
ples of  orthographic  projection,  and  containing  full  dimensions  and  notes.  They  are  accompanied  by 
the  specifications,  a  written  description  of  the  details  of  materials  and  workmanship  required,  the  two 
together  called  the  "Plans  and  Specifications"  which  form  the  basis  of  the  contract  between  owner  and 
contractor,  the  architect  acting  as  the  owner's  representative  and  agent. 

The  real  architect  then  sui)plenienls  liis  drawings  and  specifications  bj'  personal  supcr\ision  of  the 
work  as  it  progresses,  not  because  the  drawings  are  incomplete,  but  tlial  the  expression  of  indi\iduality 
may  not  be  lost  by  unimaginative  practical  workmen. 

A  distinction  must  be  made  between  an  architect  and  an  architectural  draftsman.  'i1ie  latter  is 
one  who,  under  the  direction  of  the  former,  can  c\])ress  tlu'  architect's  ideas  graphically  in  smh  a  way 
as  to  make  them  clear  to  the  builder.  Starting  with  the  preliminary  sketches  as  developed  by  the  archi- 
tect he  is  able  to  work  up  the  plans,  elevations  and  details  into  a  finished  set  of  drawings  ready  for  the 
contractor.  The  architectural  flraftsman  with  added  experience  and  opportunity  may  become  an 
architect;  at  least  it  may  be  said  that  all  architects  begin  as  architectural  draftsmen. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


To  be  fully  qualified  for  his  work  tin-  architectural  draftsman  needs  to  have  training  and  experience 
in  a  variety  of  subjects  connected  wilh  drawing.     These  might  be  enumerated  somewhat  as  follows: 

1.  He  must  be  thoroughly  familiar  with  the  principles  of  Orthographic  Projection.  This  would 
include  the  Relation  of  \'icws,  .Vu.xiliary  Projections,  Sections,  Devclo])ed  \'iews.  Reflected  Views, 
Intersections,  etc. 

2.  He  must  know  the  Architectural  Symbols,  and  the  methods  of  representing  \'arious  forms  of 
construction. 

3.  He  must  be  ac(|uainted  with  the  History  of  Architecture.  This  includes  a  thorough  working 
knowledge  of  the  Architectural  Orders. 

4.  He  must  know  the  principles  of  pure  and  applied  design. 

5.  He  must  know  materials,  their  strengths,  characteristics,  limitations  and  treatment. 

6.  He  must  be  so  familiar  with  Lettering  that  he  can  execute  it  rapidly  and  artistically  on  drawings, 
and  can  apply  it  correctly  and  beautifully  as  design  in  stone  or  bronze. 

7.  He  should  have  a  working  knowledge  of  Perspective  Drawing,  Shades  and  Siiadows,  and 
Rendering. 

(The  skilled  use  of  Perspective  and  of  making  rendered  drawings  has  become  something  of  a 
specialist's  work  and  in  larger  offices  there  is  usually  one  man  \\ho  is  emjiloyed  on  this  class  of 
work  alone.) 

The  student  should  be  reminded  that  architectural  design  and  drafting  are  inseparable.  Architectural 
drawing  is  not  simply  a  mechanical  operation  nor  a  subject  to  be  learned  separately.  The  subject  of 
architectural  composition  and  design  has  been  well  i)resented  in  numerous  books,  and  has  only  incidental 
reference  in  the  present  work  but  it  must  be  understood  that  a  knowledge  of  composition  and  style  is 
essential  to  successful  drafting. 

In  this  book  the  Author,  working  from  a  combined  experience  as  a  practicing  architect  and  a  teacher 
of  drawing,  has  brought  together  those  fundamental  subjects  in  drawing  that  should  be  studied  by  the 
prospective  architectural  draftsman,  putting  them  in  such  form  that  they  may  be  at  hand  for  ready 
reference  as  he  works  over  his  designs  on  the  board.  It  is  thus  both  a  text-  and  a  reference  book.  The 
beginner  will  find  the  course  of  study  outlined  on  pages  143,  144  and  145  a  useful  guide  in  its  use  as  a 
textbook.  As  indicated  in  the  preface,  the  covering  of  the  entire  range  of  architectural  drawing  in  one 
volume  is  not  practically  possible.  The  necessarily  brief  treatment  of  some  of  the  subjects  suggests  the 
desirability  of  supplementing  them  by  concurrent  study.  The  draftsman  already  familiar  with  the 
elementar}'  subjects  will,  it  is  believed,  find  the  material  as  presented  of  much  value  in  his  practical  work. 


PLATE     1 


PICTORIAL   DRAWINGS 


-  K4/V/J'////V(3-   /^O/A/r^ 


FlG.-l 


PERSPECTIVE 


FIG-2     I^OMETP4C 


FIG-5    OBLIQUE 


ORTHOGRAPHIC   PROJECTION  DRAWINGS 


Thejse   ore  /?u/  /wo    o/  //le. 
jei^era/  /poj3/3/e    arz-anye- 
r77e/7/j  qf  //;e    //?ree    ^/ei^j 
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£7^ot^e  ar7c/  //7e  j/i/e  i^/eiv 
c//rec/^  c^poj//e  //?e  /ron/  y/eiy. 


FP.QNT  VIEW      PxlGH'l 


LEFTJIDE 
I  IGUKE-4 


TOP  VIEW 


FRQNT  VIEW 


ARTICLE  I 

GRAPHIC  METHODS  OF  REPRESENTATION 

Plates  I  and  2 

Before  starting  the  architectural  drawing  proper,  one  must  be  familiar  with  the  two  general  methods 
of  representing  an  object  having  three  dimensions  (length,  width  and  height)  on  the  sheet  of  paper 
which  has  onh-  two  dimensions  (length  and  width). 

One  method  is  by  Pictorial  Drawings  or  pictures  and  the  other  is  by  Orthographic  Projection 
Drawings. 

To  illustrate  by  a  simple  object,  a  brick  is  represented  in  the  two  above  mentioned  ways. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  pictorial  drawings  in  common  use  which  will  be  treated  of  at  length  under 
other  headings.     Only  their  distinguishing  characteristics  will  be  pointed  out  here. 

Figure  i  on  Plate  i  is  a  Perspective  drawing  of  the  brick  in  which  it  will  be  noticed  that  all  except 
the  vertical  lines  come  together  at  what  are  known  as  vanishing  points.  The  vertical  lines  on  the  brick 
are  drawn  vertically  here.     This  is  the  way  we  actually  see  an  object. 

Figure  2  is  an  Isometric  drawing  of  the  brick,  the  characteristic  of  which  is  that  all  except  the 
vertical  lines  of  the  brick  are  drawn  toward  the  right  or  left  at  an  angle  of  30  degrees  with  the  horizontal. 
The  vertical  lines  are  drawn  vertically  here  as  in  the  Perspective. 

Figure  3  is  an  Oblique  drawing  of  the  same  object.  In  this  all  vertical  lines  remain  vertical  as  in 
the  others.  The  lines  running  lengthwise  of  the  brick  remain  horizontal  and  those  running  from  front 
to  back  are  drawn  upward  or  downward  at  any  desired  angle,  usually  30  or  45  degrees  with  the  horizontal. 

These  pictorial  drawings  each  show  three  sides  of  the  object,  but  in  each  of  them  either  the  edges  are 
foreshortened  or  else  some  sides  do  not  show  in  their  true  shape.  This  is  what  makes  it  impracticable 
to  work  from  pictorial  drawings. 

So  as  to  avoid  these  distortions  the  method  of  Orthographic  Projection  is  used  in  making  working 
drawings. 

An  Orthographic  Projection  drawing  of  the  brick  would  consist  of  one  drawing  representing  what 
would  be  seen  by  looking  straight  at  the  front  of  the  brick,  one  drawing  as  if  looking  straight  down  on 
top  of  the  brick,  and  a  third  drawing  as  if  looking  straight  at  the  end  of  the  brick.  These  three  drawings 
would  be  arranged  on  the  paper  as  in  Fig.  4. 

If  a  drawing  of  the  bottom  is  required  it  should  be  placed  directly  below  the  front  view,  etc. 

It  will  be  seen  now  that  the  Orthographic  Projection  drawings  show  the  true  shape  of  the  faces  and 
the  true  length  of  the  edges. 


PLATE    1 


METHODS    OF   REPRESTNTATION 


PERSPECTIVE 


OF    BUILDING 


FIG.- 5 


OR.THOGR.APH1C 

PPspJECTION 

DRAWINGS 


D 


OF 
q       THE 

EXTEHIOB^ 


FIG.-6    ROOF  PLAN 


T 


A  A 


-o 


A  A 


FIG.-7  LEFT  ^IDE  ELEV       FIG.-6   FRQNT  ELEVATION      FlG.-7a  RIGHT  3IDE  ELEV. 


ORq;HOGRAPHIC    PPQjECTION  DP^WING^ 
OF  THE   INTERJOfV  <-    ^  j^ 


FIG.-^^ 


CK)35    SECTION 


F  LOOPv.  PLAN 


Fia-io 

PICTORIAL   5ECT.  ^  PLAN 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


The  architectural  draftsnian  must  Ijc  familiar  with  this  method  of  representation  as  all  working 
drawings  are  made  in  this  way.  l''or  those  who  are  not  fairly  well  acquainted  with  it,  a  study  of  the 
subject  will  be  of  \alue  at  this  time.' 

.\  building  is  represented  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  simple  brick.  A  Perspective  drawing  of  a 
simple  building  is  gi\-en  in  Fig.  5,  Plate  2.  To  show  it  in  orthographic  jjrojection,  a  drawing  would  be 
made  as  though  the  observer  were  looking  straight  at  the  front  as  in  Fig.  6;  then  as  though  looking 
straight  at  the  side  in  Fig.  7  or  7a,  and  when  looking  straight  down  on  to])  of  it  as  in  Fig.  8.  The  first 
three  would  be  called  "Elevations"  and  the  last  a  "Roof  Plan." 

It  should  be  noticed  that  the  right  side  of  the  building,  Fig.  7a,  is  drawn  to  the  right  of  the  front 
view.     The  left  side.  Fig.  7,  is  drawn  to  the  left  of  the  front  view,  etc. 

If  we  imagine  the  building  to  be  cut  through  i)arallcl  to  the  ground  and  the  upper  part  removed  as 
in  Fig.  10,  and  then  draw  what  is  seen  when  looking  straight  down  on  the  remaining  j)art,  we  shall  have 
what  is  called  a  "Floor  Plan;"  see  ¥ig.  loa.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this  horizontal  section  or  Plan  is 
taken  at  \ar}-ing  distances  from  the  ground,  when  necessary,  so  that  it  may  go  through  the  features  of 
the  building  which  are  to  be  shown  on  the  Plan.  This  imaginary  horizontal  cut  is  taken  along  line  A-A 
as  shown  by  Figs.  6,  7  and  7a.     Compare  these  with  Figs.  10  and  loa. 

If  desired,  a  vertical  section  may  be  cut  through  from  the  front  to  the  back  of  the  house,  one  part 
remo\'ed,  and  the  remaining  part  drawn  as  in  Figs.  9  and  9a.  This  section  may  be  taken  at  various 
places  the  same  as  the  plan. 

Plans,  Elevations  and  Sections  are  the  three  devices  which  the  architect  employs  to  represent  a 
building  in  orthographic  projection. 

The  student  should  get  this  idea  clearly  in  mind  before  proceeding  with  the  work.  A  glance 
through  the  book  just  now  will  help  him  to  see  what  Plans,  Elevations,  and  Sections  really  look  like. 
Notice  for  example  the  drawings  of  the  Rae  Cochran  house  on  Plates  21  to  30. 

'  Consult  list  of  Reference  Books,  page  147. 


PLATE     3 


IN^TF^UMENT^ 


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FIG -12 


FULL    JIZE    OF 
PENCIL   POINT 


FIG.-14 


FIG.- 13 


FIG- 1 6 


FIG.  l'7 


J"^/7o'  /hper  P^c/ 


FIG.- 18 

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FIG.-27 

rULL    OfZL- 


ARTICLE  II 

DRAWING  INSTRUMENTS  AND  THEIR  USE 

Plate  3 

Brief  mention  will  be  made  here  concerning  thr  drawing  instruments  and  their  use.' 

Pencil.  riu'  piMU  il  is  oi  course  the  draftsman's  most  useful  instrument.  Without  a  pencil  of  the 
proper  grade,  aiul  in  good  condition,  a  draftsman  can  not  hope  to  produce  a  good  drawing.  Select  the 
pencil  for  the  work  in  hand  and  sharpen  it  carefully.  l""or  sketching  use  a  drawing  ])encil  of  grade  F;  for 
average  drafting  work  and  lettering  use  an  HB  or  an  H  and  for  \'ery  accurate  work  where  fme,  sharp 
lines  are  necessary,  a  2H  or  4H  will  serve.  The  draftsman  will  soon  become  familiar  with  the  different 
grades  of  hardness  of  leads  and  when  to  use  them.  Sharpen  the  pencil  to  a  long  tapering  point  as  in 
Fig.  12,  Plate  3,  and  keej)  the  lead  sharp  by  means  of  the  sandpaper  pencil  ])ointer,  Fig.  r8.  It  is 
important  that  the  point  be  kept  sharp,  as  accurate  work  can  not  be  done  with  a  broad  dull  lead.  By 
twirling  the  pencil  between  the  fingers  as  a  line  is  drawn,  the  point  will  be  kept  sharji  longer  than  if  it 
were  held  in  one  position  as  it  is  drawn  along.     This  is  an  easy  and  valuable  habit  to  acquire. 

Drawing  Board. — This  should  be  a  perfectly  flat,  smooth  board  of  soft  wood  made  in  such  a  way 
that  it  can  not  warp  or  split.  All  edges  should  be  perfectly  true  and  smooth.  A  board  24  by  30  inches  is 
a  good  size  for  the  student  although  a  smaller  one  maj'  be  used  at  first. 

T-square. — The  T-square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  11,  is  used  for  ruling  horizontal  lines  only.  The  head 
must  be  held  tightly  against  the  left  edge  of  the  board  thereby  keeping  the  blade  in  a  horizontal  position. 
As  the  head  is  slid  up  or  down  along  the  board  all  positions  of  the  blade  will  be  parallel.  Rule  against 
the  upper  edge  of  the  blade  only,  and  from  the  left  toward  the  right.  A  30-inch  blade  will  work  well 
with  the  24  by  30  inch  board. 

Triangles. — Two  triangles  will  be  needed,  a  45-degree  triangle  as  shown  in  Fig.  15  and  a  30-60 
degree  triangle  as  in  Fig.  16.  The  first  is  used  in  conjunction  with  the  T-square  to  draw  45-degree  and 
\ertical  lines.  The  other  is  for  dra\\nng  lines  at  30  degrees  or  60  degrees  with  the  horizontal  or  vertical. 
It  too  may  be  used  to  draw  vertical  lines.  Always  draw  vertical  lines  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top 
of  the  paper.  It  will  be  found  that,  with  these  two  triangles,  one  may  draw  lines  15  degrees  apart  in  any 
direction. 

French  Curve. — An  irregular  or  "French"  curve,  as  shown  in  Fig.  19,  is  needed  for  ruling  curved 
lines  other  than  circle  arcs. 

Scale. — The  architect's  scale,  which  is  shown  full  size  in  Fig.  27,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the 
instruments  and  the  beginner  will  do  well  to  understand  it  thoroughly  before  proceeding.  As  architec- 
tural drawings  are  of  necessity  much  smaller  than  the  objects  which  they  represent,  it  is  necessary  to  adopt 
a  "short  foot  and  inch"  with  which  to  do  the  measuring  on  the  drawing.  So  the  architect  has  a  scale 
for  this  purpose.  It  is  a  strip  of  wood  covered  with  celluloid  usually  and  is  di\ided  accurately  into 
spaces  which  represent  feet;  these  in  turn  are  divided  into  twelfths,  each  twelfth  representing  an  inch. 
Thus  one  edge  is  marked  off  into  spaces  of  )^  inch  each  and  each  space  is  considered  as  being  a  foot. 
Then  one  of  these  spaces  is  divided  up  into  twelve  parts  for  the  inches.  This  is  called  the  scale  of  }i 
inch  to  I  foot  and  is  written  's"  =  1'  ~  o".  Notice  that  the  mark  (")  represents  inches  and  the  mark 
(')  represents  feet.  The  scale  shown  in  Fig.  27  is  divided  so  that  >|,  }>i,  \i  and  i  inch  are  equal  to  i 
foot. 

If  we  are  to  draw  a  building  which  is  100  feet  long  by  50  feet  high  at  the  scale  of  J^  inch  equals  i 
foot,  our  drawing  would  be  actually  12)^  inches  long  and  6^4  inches  high.     The  beginner  will  have  a 

'  For  a  complete  discussion  consult  Reference  Books,  page  147. 

9 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 

tendency  to  think  of  it  in  this  way  which  is  absolutely  wrong  and  will  be  found  very  confusing.  Think 
of  each  }i  inch  as  being  a  small  foot  and  use  the  scale  accordingly.  Even  though  the  drawing  is  quite 
small,  think  of  it  as  being  loo  feet  by  50  feet.  This  will  require  a  mental  effort  at  first  but  becomes  very 
easy  with  practice. 

In  a  similar  manner  the  scale  is  divdded  so  that  '^i  inch,  ii^  indies,  and  3  inches  each  represent 
I  foot.  Thus  a  drawing  of  any  object,  however  large,  ma}'  be  made  at  a  scale  to  fit  the  desired  size  of 
paper. 

Dividers. — The  dividers,  Fig.  20,  are  used  to  step  off  equal  distances  or  to  divide  a  line  or  space  into 
equal  parts. 

Compasses. — The  compasses.  Fig.  24,  are  used  to  draw  circles  and  circle  arcs.  They  should  be 
held  at  the  top  between  the  thumb  and  fore  finger  and  spun  around  between  them  as  the  circle  is  drawn. 
If  held  by  the  legs  there  is  a  tendency  to  puU  them  together  or  force  them  apart  thus  spoiling  the  circle. 
Care  must  be  exercised  so  that  the  needle  point  may  not  be  i)ressed  deeply  into  the  paper  as  this  will 
result  in  inaccurate  work.     Keep  the  needle  and  lead  of  even  length  by  adjusting  them  when  necessary. 

Ruling  Pen. — This,  Fig.  17,  is  used  for  ruling  lines  in  ink  and  is  held  as  shown  in  Fig  14.  It  is  filled 
with  ink  by  placing  the  cjuill  of  the  drawing  ink  bottle  between  the  nibs  of  the  pen,  when  the  ink  will 
run  between  the  nibs.  The  \Aadth  of  a  line  is  determined  by  the  adjusting  screw  on  the  pen.  The  pen 
should  not  be  filled  too  fuU,  as  the  ink  is  likely  to  drop  out  or  run  out  quickly  when  passing  across  another 
inked  line.  Tr\-  the  pen  on  the  border  of  the  plate  before  using  it  on  the  drawing.  The  compass  pen 
is  operated  similarly.  Always  keep  the  nibs  clean  outside  and  never  allow  ink  to  dry  between  them, 
as  this  would  rust  the  pen  and  clog  it  up. 

Erasers. — For  general  erasing,  a  Faber  Ruby  eraser  is  very  satisfactory  as  it  may  be  used  for  both 
pencil  and  ink  lines  on  paper  or  tracing  cloth.  The  draftsman  should  have  also  a  piece  of  Art  Gum  for 
cleaning  off  light  lines  or  soiled  places. 

Thumb  Tacks. — Use  small  thumb  tacks.  Fig.  13,  for  fastening  the  paper  to  the  board;  the  large  ones 
are  more  expcnsi\e  and  less  satisfactory  to  use.  Always  press  the  tacks  firmly  down,  as  it  is  the  head, 
rather  than  the  pin,  which  holds  the  paper  in  place. 

Paper. — The  architect  finds  use  for  several  kinds  of  paper  in  his  work. 

DetaU  pai)er  is  a  hea\-y  paper  used  for  the  drawing  of  building  details.  It  may  be  had  in  sheets  or 
in  rolls.  The  rolls  vary  in  width  from  36  to  54  inches  and  usually  contain  from  10  to  50  yards.  A  36- 
inch  roll  may  be  cut,without  waste,  into  sheets  36  by  26,  26  by  18,  18  by  13,  13  by  9,  or  9  by  6' 9  inches. 

Tracing  paper  is  a  thin,  white,  transparent  paper  for  general  use  where  one  drawing  is  to  be  made 
over  another.  It  is  much  cheaper  than  detail  paper  and  is  ideal  for  sketches  and  scale  drawings.  It 
comes  in  rolls  30  to  50  inches  in  width  and  in  various  lengths. 

Water-color  paper  is  used  where  water-color  renderings  arc  desired.  Hicre  are  several  kinds  of 
good  water-color  papers,  the  two  in  most  common  use  being  the  Italian  "  l''abriano"  and  the  English 
"Whatman"  paper.  These  are  finished  in  three  fjualitics,  hot  pressed  (smoolli  surface),  cold  pressed 
^medium  surface),  and  rough.  The  hot  pressed  is  best  for  fine  line  work,  the  cold  pressed  for  average 
rendering,  and  the  rough  for  water-color  sketches  or  bold  work.  The  sheet  sizes  vary  from  13  by  17 
to  35,'^  by  56  inches.     The  Imperial  or  22  by  30-inch  size  is  i)robably  best  for  student  work. 

Bristol  board  is  a  cardboard  for  use  in  pen,  pcnc  il,  or  water-color  rendering.  There  are  two  surfaces, 
the  smooth  f(;r  |)en  and  ink,  and  the  medium  for  i)encil  and  for  water-color.  The  board  is  made  in  a 
number  of  sizes  and  weights. 

Ink.— iJrawing  ink  is  a  heavy  "India  ink"  especially  i)rei)ared  for  this  work.  It  comes  in  bottles 
with  a  fjuili  in  the  cork  for  use  in  filling  the  i)ens. 

Lettering  Pens.     Sec  llu-  arlit  Ic  on  lettering. 

10 


ARTICLE  III 

GEOMETRIC  METHODS 

Plates  4  and  5 

Only  those  geometric  solutions  which  the  draftsman  will  be  most  likely  to  need  in  his  work  are 
given  here.' 

To  divide  a  line  A-B  into  two  equal  parts,  Fig.  28,  Plate  4,  set  the  compasses  at  a  radius  larger  than 
one-half  of  the  line  and  with  first  A  and  then  5  as  a  center,  draw  intersecting  arcs  lightly  at  C  and  D. 
Draw  a  li^ht  straight  line  from  C  to  D.     This  will  bisect  A-B. 

To  divide  a  line  E-F  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  seven,  Fig.  29,  draw  a  light  line  slanting 
in  an>-  convenient  direction,  such  as  E-G.  Now  lay  the  scale  along  E-G  and  mark  off  seven  equal  parts 
using  any  convenient  length  as  a  unit,  say  seven-eighths,  seven-quarters,  seven-halves  or  seven  inches. 
From  the  last  mark,  "  7, "  draw  a  light  line  to  F;  then  from  each  mark  on  line  E-G,  draw  lines  parallel  to 
■j-F  and  cutting  line  E-F.     These  last  lines  will  divide  line  E-F  into  seven  equal  parts. 

To  divide  the  space  between  two  lines  into  any  number  of  equal  parts,  say  five,  "Fig.  30,  lay  the 
scale  with  the  zero  end  on  one  line  and  swing  the  other  end  around  untO  any  multiple  of  live  coincides 
with  the  other  line.  In  the  illustration  %  inch  has  been  chosen  as  the  unit.  Mark  off  the  five  units 
along  the  scale  and  through  each  mark  draw  a  line  parallel  to  the  two  given  lines.  These  will  divide 
the  space  equally  into  live  parts.     This  method  is  very  valuable  in  laying  out  stair  steps,  etc. 

To  draw  a  perpendicular  to  a  given  line  at  a  given  point,  Fig.  3  i  ,  lay  either  triangle  with  the  hypothe- 
nuse  along  the  given  line  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  place  the  T-square  blade  against  one  side  of 
it  as  indicated.  Now  hold  the  T-square  firmly  and  turn  the  triangle  around,  keeping  its  square  corner 
against  the  T-square  blade,  then  slide  it  along  the  blade  until  the  hypothenuse  passes  through  the  given 
point,  when  the  required  perpendicular  may  be  drawn  against  the  hypothenuse  of  the  triangle. 

To  draw  lines  parallel  to  any  given  line  L-M,  Fig.  32,  place  the  triangle  against  the  line  Z,-Af  as 
shown  and  place  the  T-scjuare  blade  against  the  triangle.  Holding  the  T-square  in  this  position,  slide  the 
triangle  along  to  positions  as  shown  by  dotted  lines  and  any  number  of  lines  may  thus  be  drawn  parallel 
to  the  original  line  L-M. 

'  If  other  problems  are  met,  consult  "Kidder,"  The  .\rcliitects'  and  Builders'  Poclict  Book. 


II 


PLATE     4 


GEOMETRIC  METHODS 


/ 
/ 

/ 


4        FIG- 2  8 


i>^/' 


FIG-JO 


FIG.-J)1 


FIG.-J-l- 


Perpenc/icufar 
bf  sec  far 


FIG.-J3 


ARririTKCTURAL  DRAWING 


To  bisect  any  angle  .V,(^  t\  I'ig-  ,^3.  Plate  4,  sol  l  he  compass  at  any  convenient  radius"  a"  and  with 
O  as  a  center  draw  arcs  at  .V  and  P  lightly.  With  .V  and  then  /'  as  centers  and  the  same  radius  "6" 
from  either  center,  draw  the  arcs  intersecting  at  Q.     Through  O  and  Q  draw  the  bisector. 

To  divide  the  circumference  of  a  circle  into  six  equal  parts,  Tig.  34,  Plate  4,  set  the  dividers  equal 
to  the  railius  and  steji  olT  the  jiarls  directly,  or  use  the  30-degree  triangle  as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

To  draw  tangent  circle  arcs,  Fig.  35,  Plate  4.  The  point  of  tangency  of  two  circle  arcs  is  always  on 
a  line  joining  the  centers  of  the  two  arcs,  see  lines  A-B  and  A-C.  First  locate  the  centers,  then  connect 
them  by  straight  lines  as  indicated,  then  swing  the  circle  arcs  stopping  each  exactly  at  its  tangent 
])()int.  Notice  that  the  distance  between  centers  is  equal  to  the  sum  or  the  difference  of  the  radii  of  the 
circle  arcs  as  the  case  may  be. 

To  find  the  center  for  a  given  circle  or  circle  arc,  Fig.  36,  Plate  4,  draw  any  two  chords  and  then 
draw  their  perpendicular  bisectors  by  the  method  of  Fig.  28.  These  bisectors  will  intersect  at  the 
required  renter  if  the  work  is  carefully  done. 

To  draw  the  arc  of  a  circle  when  given  the  chord  A-B  and  the  rise  C-D  and  when  the  center  of  the 
circle  is  not  on  the  board.  Fig.  37,  Plate  5,  first  draw  E-F  through  D  parallel  to  A-B;  then  draw  A-II 
and  B-K  perpendicular  to  A-B.  Draw  A-D  and  D-B  then  draw  A-E  perpendicular  to  A-D  and  B-F 
peqxMidicular  to  D-B.  Now  divide  A-II,  B-K,  E-D,  D-F,  A-C  and  C-B  into  the  same  number  of  e(]ual 
parts  (in  this  case  we  have  chosen  six).  Draw  lines  connecting  the  points  as  shown  and  draw  the  circle 
arc  through  their  intersections. 

To  draw  a  true  ellipse  having  the  length  of  the  major  and  minor  axes  given,  Fig.  38,  Plate  5,  mark 
off  on  a  strip  of  paper  a  length  A-B  ecjual  to  one-half  of  the  minor  axis  and  A-C  equal  to  one-half  of  the 
major  axis.  Now  move  this  "trammel,"  as  it  is  called,  into  successive  positions,  always  keeping  point 
B  on  the  major  axis  and  point  C  on  the  minor  axis.  When  in  each  of  these  positions,  mark  location  of 
point  .1  by  a  dot.  After  locating  enough  of  these  points,  draw  the  ellipse  through  them  with  a  French 
curve. 

To  draw  a  true  ellipse  by  concentric  circles.  Fig.  39,  Plate  5,  draw  first  the  major  axis  D-E  then  the 
minor  axis  F-G  intersecting  at  center  //.  Then  with  //  as  a  center  draw  a  circle  of  radius  II-D  and  another 
of  radius  II-F.  Divide  these  two  circles  into  the  same  number  of  parts  by  drawing  lightly  the  radial  lines 
from  //.  From  the  intersections  of  each  radial  line  with  the  circles,  draw  the  short  lines  parallel  to 
D-E  and  F-G  as  shown.  Where  these  last  lines  intersect  will  be  points  on  the  ellipse.  Notice  that  each 
radial  line  will  fix  two  points  on  the  ellipse.     Locate  as  many  points  as  accuracy  demands. 

To  draw  an  approximate  ellipse  by  the  three  center  method,  Fig.  40,  Plate  5,  la}-  off  from  the  end 
of  the  major  axis  the  distance  L-K  equal  to  the  radius  chosen  for  the  end  of  the  ellipse.  Locate  A^  the 
same  distance  from  M  on  the  minor  axis  as  K  is  from  L  and  draw  K-A^.  Draw  the  perpendicular  bisector 
of  K-N  until  it  intersects  the  minor  axis  at  O.     Draw  a  line  through  O  and  K  to  P.     With  K  as  a  center 


^3 


PLATE     5 


GEOMETRIC   METHODS 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


and  radius  K-L,  draw  the  circle  arc  Q-L-P  forming  the  end  of  the  eUipse.  Then  with  O  as  a  center  and 
radius  0-P,  draw  the  circle  arc  P-M-S  forming  the  top  of  the  ellipse.  Complete  the  figure  similarly. 
It  will  be  founil  thai  1)\'  this  method  the  ellipse  will  often  be  much  distorted. 

To  draw  an  approximate  semi-ellipse  by  the  five  center  method,  l"ig.  41,  Plate  5.  Having  drawn 
the  major  axis  A"-//  and  the  semi-minor  axis  i'-D,  complete  the  rectangle  E-F-G-II-E.  Draw  E-C,  and 
then  F-B  perjx'ndicular  to  E-C  and  intersecting  E-II  at  O.  Lay  off  D-S  ecjual  to  D-C  and  with  S-II  as  a 
diameter  draw  the  semi-circle  S-L-H.  Measure  D-T  equal  to  K-L  then  with  5  as  a  center  and  a  radius 
B-T  describe  an  arc.  With  E  and  H  as  centers  and  a  radius  equal  to  A-D  describe  intersecting  arcs  at 
.V  and  .1/.  Through  these  points  and  center  B  draw  lines  B-Q  and  B-R.  With  O  as  a  center  and  radius 
0-E  draw  arc  E-P.  Then  with  .V  as  a  center  and  radius  .V-P  draw  arc  P-Q.  Then  with  5  as  a  center 
and  radius  B-Q  draw  arc  Q-C-K.     Complete  the  ellipse  similarly. 

To  draw  a  Tudor  or  pointed  arch,  Fig.  42,  Plate  5,  lay  off  the  desired  width  or  span  yi-B  and  the 
height  or  rise  C-D.  Select  any  desired  radius  for  the  small  circle  arc,  say  A-F  and  locate  F  and  G. 
With  F  as  a  center  and  radius  F-G  swing  an  arc  cutting  the  center  line  at  E.  Draw  line  F-E  produced  to 
meet  a  vertical  line  dropped  from  point  G  to  locate  //.  With  A  as  a  center  and  radius  F-H  describe  an 
arc;  then  with  C  as  a  center  and  a  radius  ecjual  to  A-F  plus  F-H,  describe  the  small  intersecting  arc 
which  locates  point  A".  Draw  line  A'-A  produced  through  L.  Now  with  A  as  a  center  and  radius  A-F 
draw  arc  A-L,  then  with  A'  as  a  center  and  radius  A^-A  draw  the  arc  L-C.  Complete  the  arch  similarly. 
This  method  produces  the  best  arch  when  the  radius  of  the  smaller  arc  is  equal  to  about  one-fourth  of 
the  span  but  will  work  for  other  radii. 

To  draw  a  regular  pentagon  when  given  the  distance  from  the  center  to  a  point,  Fig.  43,  Plate  5, 
draw  the  vertical  and  horizontal  axes  A-B  and  C-D  intersecting  at  center  E  and  draw  the  circumscribing 
circle.  Then  locate  A,  the  middle  point  of  C-E  and  with  this  as  a  center  and  a  radius  F-A,  describe  an 
arc  cutting  C-D  at  G.  Then  with  A  as  a  center  and  a  radius  A-G,  swing  the  arc  which  locates  point  II 
on  one  side  of  the  circle  and  point  /  on  the  other  side.  Then  with  H  and  /  as  centers  and  radius  A-H, 
locate  /  and  A'.     Connect  A-H-K-J-I-A  to  form  the  pentagon. 

To  draw  a  regular  hexagon  proceed  according  to  the  method  given  on  Plate  4  for  dividing  the  circle 
into  six  equal  parts.     Connect  the  points  on  the  circle  using  the  30-60  degree  triangle. 

To  draw  a  regular  octagon.  Fig.  44,  Plate  5,  first  draw  the  circumscribing  circle  with  a  diameter 
equal  to  the  distance  across  points  of  the  octagon.  Draw  the  vertical  and  horizontal  diameters  and  two 
others  at  45  degrees  with  these.  Connect  the  points  where  these  lines  cut  the  circumference  of  the 
circle. 

To  draw  a  circular  intersection  between  two  straight  lines  A-B  and  C-D,  Fig.  45,  Plate  5,  draw 
E-F  parallel  to  A-B  and  at  a  distance  from  A-B  equal  to  the  radius  R  of  the  connecting  arc;  then  draw 
G-H  similarly.     Where  these  two  lines  intersect  will  be  the  center  for  the  circle  arc. 


15 


ARTICLE  IV 

PRELIMINARY  SKETCHES 

Plates  6  to  I 8 

The  drawings  which  the  architect  first  produces  tor  his  cUent  are  called  preliminary  sketches.  They 
are  the  product  of  his  preliminary  study  of  the  problem  and  serve  as  a  basis  for  further  study  by  both 
parties.  The  preliminary  sketches  consist  of  the  principal  plans  accompanied  by  either  the  elevations 
or  a  perspective  of  the  exterior.  They  sometimes  include  sections  through  the  building  to  show  parts  of 
the  interior.  See  Plate  2.  These  drawings  are  usually  done  in  a  sketchy  manner  but  show  clearly  the 
general  scheme. 

They  are  made  at  a  scale  of  ig,  i  fe  or  1^2  inch  ecjual  to  i  foot  and  sometimes  not  to  any  scale  at  all, 
in  which  case  only  the  proportions  are  watched. 

The  plan  of  the  building  is  the  first  preliminary  to  be  worked  out.  The  walls  are  usually  repre- 
sented in  this  drawing  simply  by  single  lines,  allowance  being  made  of  course  for  the  wall  thickness  when 
rooms  are  dimensioned  on  the  sketch.  While  developing  the  plan,  the  elevation  should  be  kept  in 
mind  to  bring  about  the  desired  result.  The  client  usually  furnishes  the  architect  with  a  general  idea  of 
the  style  of  elevation  he  wishes  and  sometimes  with  the  general  arrangement  of  the  plan. 

The  elevations  are  sketched  rather  roughly  at  first  until  an  approximate  scheme  has  been  developed. 
Windows  are  often  indicated  here  just  b}-  dark  spots  of  the  desired  proportions;  cornices  and  mouldings 
are  indicated  by  drawing  the  shadows  which  they  cast,  etc.  See  Plate  6.  Most  designers  work  the  plan 
and  elevations  along  together  until  a  satisfactory  result  is  attained. 

After  this  stage  is  reached,  a  pictorial  drawing  of  the  exterior  is  sometimes  made,  usually  in  perspec- 
tive. This  is  then  rendered  by  casting  the  shadows  and  often  by  showing  the  natural  colors  of  the  mate- 
rial in  the  building  and  its  surroundings.  The  picture  is  made  because  it  is  usually  diflficult  for  the  client 
to  understand  a  direct  elevation,  whereas  the  picture  is  easily  legible.  If  these  preliminary  sketches 
are  to  be  submitted  in  competition  with  the  work  of  other  architects,  as  is  frequcnth'  the  case  with 
sketches  of  jjublic  buildings,  the  rendering  becomes  a  very  important  part  of  the  work  and  is  often  done 
by  artists  who  make  this  their  profession. 

To  go  about  the  preparation  of  preliminary  sketches  intelligently,  the  designer  must  know  the 
amount  of  money  to  be  spent  and  must  become  acquainted  with  the  needs  and  preferences  of  his  client. 
For  example,  in  case  of  a  residence,  this  means  a  knowledge  of  the  members  of  the  family  to  be  housed 
and,  to  an  extent,  the  likes,  dislikes  and  needs  of  each.  Then  the  general  manner  of  living,  the  number 
of  servants,  the  amount  of  entertaining  done,  etc.,  will  all  have  a  bearing  on  the  design.  A  house  to 
suit  this  family  must  also  be  made  to  fit  the  site  or  location.  This  means  that  the  designer  must  become 
famihar  with  the  site  and  its  surroundings.  If  the  house  is  to  be  built  on  very  uneven  ground,  a  survey 
should  first  be  made  by  a  competent  surveyor. 

Due  regard  must  be  given  to  the  orientation  or  facing  of  tlu'  various  rooms  of  the  liou.se. 

The  living  room  is  the  principal  room  of  the  house  and  as  such  it  should  be  given  special  considera- 
tion. Plan  it  with  a  south  and  west  exposure  whenever  possible,  but  of  course  the  amcw  from  the  win- 
dows will  have  a  bearing  on  this.  The  outlook  should  be  pleasant  and,  if  it  is  not,  a  shrubbery  screen 
may  be  planted  to  hide  the  objectionable  feature  from  sight.  A  generous  fireplace  seems  indispensable 
in  this  room.  Place  it  where  the  most  people  can  gather  round  it,  not  in  a  corner  or  where  there  will  l)e  a 
cross-draft  through  the  room. 

The  dining  room  should  look  to  the  .south  and  over  a  garden,  lawn  or  other  jjleasant  feature  if 
possible.     It  should  get  the  morning  sun  and  should  be  bright  and  cheerful. 

16 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Kitchen  at 
Scored    by 


CUT 


SCORE 


PLAN  35  POINTS 

1  Arrangement  of  space  for  equipment 

Convenience  of  stove,  table,  sink,  or  other  furniture. 

2  Storage 

Storaf;o  panlr> — size  and  convenience. 
Serving  pantry — size  and  convenience. 
Refrigerator.     Shelving  and  hooks  adequate  and  convenient   to  sink.     Stove.     Table. 

Clock. 
Distances — if  any  two  (stove,  table,  sink,  pantry)  are  farther  apart  tlian  12  feet,  cut  }i 

point  for  each  foot  more  than  12  feet. 
Doors 


li; 


,? 


II 


III 


If  there  are  more  than  4,  cut  one  point  for  each. 
Outside  door  direct  to  covered  porch  or  entry. 
If  there  is  no  covered  porch,  cut  i  point. 
Door  to  dining-room — double  swinging  if  direct. 
.Accessibility  to  front  door. 
Accessibility  to  upstairs. 
.•Xccessibility  to  cellar. 

If  rear  stair  goes  up  from  kitchen,  cut  1,  points. 
LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION  25  POINTS 

Should  be  two  exposures;  if  only  one  cut  5  points. 

Glass  area  =  20 "^r  of  floor  area.     Cut  i  point  for  each  i  ^t  under  20%. 

Window  in  pantry — cut  2  points  if  there  is  none. 

Satisfactory  daylight  at  stove,  sink,  and  table. 

Score  ,5  points  for  each  if  good. 

Transom  over  outside  door,  i  point. 

If  window  stools  are  less  than  34"  from  floor  cut  i  point. 

Satisfactory  artificial  light  at  stove,  sink,  and  table,  3  points  each. 

Ventilating  hood  or  tlue.  i  point. 

FLOORS  AND  W.ALLS  lo  POINTS 

1  Floor — resilient  and  grease  proof 

Hardwood,  monolith,  or  linoleum  are  O.  K. 
Cut  for  cracks,  soft  wood,  carpet,  etc. 

2  Walls 

Light  in  color,  cheerful  and  sanitary. 
Cut  for  violations  of  above  requirements. 
•?  Woodwork 


25 


IV 


Cut  I  point  for  dust-catching  mouldings  and  projections. 
Cut  I  point  for  wood  wainscot. 
EQUIPMENT  30  POINTS 

1  Stove — adequate  size  and  condition 

If  oven  is  less  than  10"  from  floor,  cut  i  point  per  inch. 

If  there  is  no  boiler,  cut  2  points. 

If  there  is  no  thermometer,  cut  i  point. 

2  Sink 

Enamel  or  porcelain  are  O.  K. 

Cut  two  points  for  uncomfortable  lieight. 

Cut  for  iron,  tin,  etc.,  3  points. 

Double  drain-board;  if  single,  cut  3  points. 

If  splash  board  is  wood,  cut  two  points. 

3  Table 

Size — Cut  I  point  if  smaller  than  6  square  feet. 
Height — Cut  i  point  if  uncomfortable. 

4  Refrigerator 

Size,  material,  condition. 

5  Fircless  cooker 

6  Chair  and  stool 

Total 


If  no  water  in  kitchen,  cut  40  points. 
If  no  hot  water  in  kitchen,  cut  20  points. 
If  kitchen  is  used  as  laundry,  cut  15  points. 

Remarks 


Suggestions  for  improvement 


U 


PLATE     6 


■JUt-tfifa— ra^tim 


. ^^Ijyj^,-^ 


Ai\ 


liU 


y'] 


f/<.s- 


', 

w^' 

**•-■_:'    "* 

y        !->>■*»•  "> 

;             ■-» 

L 


ARCIiriF.CI  IRAI.  DRAWING 


The  kitclicn  is  ihe  work  shop  of  llic  liousc  iuul  musl  be  very  carefully  studied  to  be  successful.  It 
is  best  placed  at  the  northeast  corner  of  the  house.  The  many  points  which  demand  attention  in  this 
room  are  suggested  in  the  accompanying  Kill  luii  Scori'  ("aid,  which  is  used  in  the  Drawing  Department 
at  The  Ohio  State  I'niversity.  \Mu'n  i^hinninj,^  a  kilihen,  ihe  result  should  be  checked  carefully  with 
this  reminder. 

The  bed  rooms  should  be  well  lighted  and  ventilated.  Have  windows  in  two  walls  whenever  possi- 
ble, {o  alTord  a  cross  circulation  of  air.     Generous  clothes  closets  are  very  much  in  demand. 

In  all  rooms  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  the  providing  of  space  for  the  furniture.  To  aid  in 
this,  the  following  approximate  furniture  dimensions  are  given. 

Tables  are  about  29  inches  high  and  the  top  of  a  dining  table  is  about  42  to  48  inches  wide  by  vary- 
ing lengths. 

Chair  seats  are  about  18  inches  square  and  18  inches  from  the  lloor. 

Rocking  chairs  are  about  20  inches  deep  by  24  inches  wide. 

The  kitchen  stove  projects  from  the  wall  about  26  inches  and  is  36  or  more  inches  in  width. 

A  grand  piano  is  6  by  5  feet.     An  ui)right  piano  is  51^  by  2},^  feet. 

A  lounge  or  davenport  is  about  30  inches  by  6  to  7  feet. 

Double  beds  are  about  5  feet  wide,  three-quarter  beds  are  about  4I4  feet  wide  and  single  beds  3 
to  4  feet  wide.     Beds  are  about  6  feet  10  inches  long. 

Bureaus  and  chiiToniers  extend  about  18  inches  from  the  wall  and  \-ary  in  width  from  3  feet  uj). 

For  plumbing  fixtures  see  Plate  19. 

The  preliminary  sketch  is  decidedly  the  work  of  a  designer  and  an  original  sketch  can  not  be  success- 
fully produced  without  a  knowledge  of  architectural  composition  and  styles  or  an  artistic  sense  of  the 
litness  of  things,  both  being  necessary  for  the  best  results.  The  student,  however,  can  at  once  learn  how 
to  make  the  necessary  drawings  and  his  ability  as  a  designer  will  then  be  the  result  of  constant  study 
and  development  of  his  talents  as  he  works  along. 

In  developing  a  scheme  it  is  always  well,  after  a  little  thought,  to  get  something  down  on  paper  and 
then  to  alter  this  until  satisfied,  rather  than  to  attempt  to  think  out  the  finished  scheme  in  one's  mind 
and  then  consider  the  first  drawing  made  as  being  complete.  The  best  results  will  be  gained  by  putting 
down  each  step  in  the  development  as  it  is  thought  out.  To  facilitate  this  the  designer  makes  use  of 
transparent  tracing  paper.  Thus  sketch  after  sketch  may  be  made  one  o\er  the  other  for  each  alteration 
or  addition,  and  in  the  end,  a  complete  record  of  the  development  is  preserved. 

The  current  architectural  magazines'  furnish  many  suggestions  for  plans  and  elevations  of  various 
classes  of  buildings  which  may  be  followed  by  the  student  in  his  practice  sketches. 

On  Plate  76  is  given  a  number  of  sketch  plans  and  perspectives  which  may  later  be  developed  into 
working  drawings  by  the  student. 

The  Frontispiece  is  a  preliminary  sketch  from  the  oflfice  of  Howell  and  Thomas,  Architects,  of 
Cleveland,  Ohio.  It  is  in  direct  elevation  and  is  a  pencil  sketch  which  has  been  lightly  tinted  with 
crayon,  producing  a  pleasing  effect.  Notice  that  \ery  few  lines  of  the  building  have  been  drawn  but 
rather  the  form  of  the  parts  is  merely  suggested  in  a  sketchy  manner  b\-  indicating  shadows,  etc.  The 
surrounding  trees,  lawn  and  walks  are  sketched  in  jjerspective  to  give  depth  to  the  picture. 

On  Plate  6  are  some  of  the  sketches  from  which  was  de\-eloj)cd  the  design  of  the  Cochran  residence. 
The  working  drawings  of  this  house  are  shown  on  Plates  21  to  30.  The  photograph  on  Plate  6  shows 
the  appearance  of  the  completed  house. 

'  A   list  of  these  magazines  will  be  found  on  page  149. 

19 


PLATE     7 


PERSPECTIVE 


FIG- 46 


FIG.-47 


3- ELEVATION 

(flJPNT  VIE-W) 


flG.-^l 


A 

H          1 

L 
C 

H 

L 

\ 

^^^^■^^         H 

n 

r^ 

r- 

li 

A 

\     • 

I 

^ 

VARJATIOM^  DUt TO  D(r-M;Rr:NT  Po-MTIOtHo  or-  Tilt:  oTATlON  POINT. 


ARrilTTF.rTrRAI.  nR AWING 


PERSPIXTIVE  DRAWING 

Since  the  ]icrspcctivo  drawing  of  an  objcrt  shows  it  as  \i  would  apjK'ar  to  the  eye  of  the  observer, 
it  is  very  important  tliat  the  draftsman  acquire  tlie  al)ility  to  draw  and  think,  in  perspective. 

As  has  already  been  stated  he  must  express  his  design  in  a  legible  manner  to  his  client  and  he  must 
also  be  able  to  sketch  quickh'  in  persj5ecti\'e  those  features  of  his  design  which  he  can  not  readily  visual- 
ize himself.  As  he  gains  a  knowledge  of  drawing  in  persj^ective  he  will  also  acquire  the  ability  to  think 
in  ])erspective  which,  to  the  designer,  is  an  asset,  the  value  of  which  can  not  be  overestimated. 

The  decided  ditTerence  between  the  appearance  of  the  orthographic  j)rojection  drawing  of  a  building 
and  the  jiicture  or  perspective,  may  be  seen  by  comparing  the  photograph  of  the  Cochran  house  with  the 
sketch  of  the  front  elevation  on  Plate  6.     This  is  i)articularly  true  of  roof  lines  and  dormers. 

An  attempt  has  been  made  to  keep  the  explanation  as  brief  as  i)ossible  and  at  the  same  time  make 
it  adequate  for  the  needs  of  a  student  at  this  stage  in  his  progress. ' 

Theory  and  Notation. — The  student  must  first  become  acquainted  with  the  theory  of  perspective 
projectit)n  and  the  notation  commonly  used  in  developing  these  drawings.  For  example,  consider  a 
brick  as  being  laid  down  on  the  ground  at  some  distance  from  the  eye  and  then  imagine  a  glass  plate  to 
be  set  up  vertically  between  the  eye  and  the  brick  as  in  Fig.  46,  Plate  7.  This  imaginary  plate  or  plane 
will  hereafter  be  referred  to  as  the  picture  plane  and  marked  P-P  and  its  intersection  with  the  ground  will 
be  called  the  ground  Hue  and  marked  (i-L.  The  location  of  the  eye  of  the  observer  is  known  as  the 
station  point  and  is  marked  S.  The  vertical  lines  of  the  object  will  be  drawn  vertically  always.  Any 
system  of  parallel  lines  on  the  object  will  meet  at  a  point  called  the  vanishing  point  and  marked  V. 
Parallel  horizontal  lines  have  their  vanishing  points  on  the  horizon  line.  The  horizon  line  is  drawn 
horizontally,  i:)arallel  to  G-L.  Its  distance  above  the  ground  line  is  always  the  same  as  the  distance  that 
the  eye  is  assumed  to  be  above  the  ground. 

Now  imagine  lines  of  sight  to  be  drawn  from  the  station  point  through  the  picture  plane  to  the 
corners  of  the  brick.  Connect  the  points  where  these  lines  pierce  the  picture  plane  and  the  perspective 
projection  of  the  brick  on  the  picture  plane  will  be  the  result. 

It  will  be  evident  by  a  glance  at  Fig.  47  that  if  the  eye  (or  station  point)  is  elevated  farther  from 
the  ground,  the  projection  of  the  brick  on  the  picture  plane  will  also  be  raised;  then  too  we  can  see  from 
this  new  station  point  more  of  the  toj)  of  the  brick  than  before.  The  opposite  is  true  when  the  eye  is 
placed  nearer  to  the  ground.  Notice  that  the  projection  on  the  picture  plane  is  smaller  than  the  brick, 
because  the  lines  of  sight  converge  as  they  go  from  the  brick  toward  the  picture  plane.  If  we  move  the 
brick  up  until  one  edge  is  touching  the  picture  plane  as  in  Pig.  48,  it  is  seen  that  the  projection  of  that 
edge  is  in  its  true  size,  but  that  all  of  the  brick  behind  the  picture  plane  is  projected  smaller  as  before. 
From  this  we  gather  that  measurements  can  be  made  only  on  the  ])icture  plane  or  where  the  picture 
plane  and  the  object  are  in  actual  contact.  In  drawing  the  perspective  of  a  building  it  is  well  to  place 
the  front  corner  against  the  picture  plane  so  that  the  vertical  distances  may  be  measured  along  it. 

'  If  further  study  of  the  subject  is  desired,  consult  one  of  the  handbooks  listed  on  page  147. 


21 


PLATE     7 


PERSPECTIVE 


F IG-  46 


fiG.-^y 


ii. 


A 


A 

H 

L 

_LLJ     c 

ElG.-^I 


1 

H 

1. 

H 

/^ 

\ 

L 

E 

VARIATIONS  DUL- TO  DlftLRTiNT   P05IT(0H  J  Of  Tilt.  STATION   PolIST. 


ARCIIITKrTrRAl.   DRAWING 


Scale. — Perspective  drawings  arc  made  U)  scale  the  same  as  orthographic  projection  drawings. 

Systems.  Drawings  will  he  in  angular  i)erspective  when  the  object  is  placed  at  an  angle  with  the 
picture  jilanc  as  in  Figs.  46,  47  and  48,  Plate  7,  and  in  parallel  perspective  when  one  face  or  edge  is 
])laccd  parallel  to  or  else  in  the  jMcturc  plane  as  in  Fig.  40.  The  most  pleasing  presentation  of  a  building 
is  usually  in  angular  perspective  while  the  other  method  gives  good  results  for  interiors. 

Study. — As  a  method  of  study  it  is  suggested  that  the  student  follow  carefully  through  the  explana- 
tion of  each  figure,  understanding  fully  every  statement  before  proceeding  to  the  next.  After  he  has 
studied  the  operation  and  fixed  each  step  in  his  mind  he  should  draw  the  object  in  perspective  to  any 
convenient  size. 

Accuracy. — Since  a  slight  error  in  draftsmanship  would  be  likely  to  distort  the  result  badly,  great 
care  must  be  exercised  throughout  the  work.  Keep  the  pencil  needle-sharp  and  make  all  measurements 
and  locate  all  intersections  with  the  utmost  exactness.  After  a  little  practice  the  student  will  learn 
where  care  is  necessary  and  where  it  is  not  so  important. 

Angular  Perspective. — Let  the  student  imagine  himself  to  be  looking  directly  down  upon  the  brick, 
picture  plane  and  station  point  shown  in  Fig.  48  and  draw  at  the  desired  scale  what  he  sees  as  in  the 
top  view  or  Plan,  Fig.  50,  and  below  this,  what  he  sees  when  looking  straight  toward  the  picture  plane 
as  in  the  front  view  or  Elevation,  Fig.  50.  In  drawing  this  front  view  first  draw  G-L  horizontally  at  a  con- 
venient place  on  the  paper.  Now  if  the  eye  is  considered  as  being  5  feet  above  the  ground,  the  II-L 
should  be  drawn  5  feet  above  G-L  at  the  scale  decided  upon  and  parallel  to  G-L.  The  location  of  the  eye 
or  station  point  5  must  now  be  fixed  at  the  desired  distance  in  front  of  P-P  in  plan  and  in  the  desired 
position  laterally.  This  location  must  be  carefully  determined  as  the  result  depends  largely  upon  it. 
Figure  51  shows  several  perspectives  of  the  same  building  with  the  plan  in  the  same  position  in  each  case 
but  with  5  located  in  various  positions.  In  Fig.  51.^.  the  station  point  is  placed  toward  the  left.  It  is 
toward  the  right  in  b,  toward  the  center  and  low  in  c,  high  in  d,  at  a  distance  from  P-P  in  e  and  very 
close  to  P-P  in  f.  B}-  making  a  few  rjuick  sketches  the  position  of  the  plan  and  station  point  may  be 
quite  accurately  determined  for  the  result  desired.  Thus  the  designer  may  imagine  himself  to  be  stand- 
ing at  any  jjoint  about  the  building  and,  by  drawing  a  perspective  with  this  station  point,  he  may  learn 
exactly  what  his  design  will  look  like  when  viewed  from  this  position. 

From  5,  Fig.  50,  draw  a  line  parallel  to  one  side  of  the  brick  intersecting  P-P  at  v-  and  one  parallel  to 
the  end  of  the  brick  touching  P-P  at  v' .  These  two  lines  from  S  must  always  be  90  degrees  apart  no 
matter  what  the  shape  of  the  object  may  be.  From  v'  and  v'-  drop  vertical  lines  to  H-L  which  will  locate 
the  vanishing  points  F'  and  F'  of  the  two  systems  of  parallel  horizontal  lines.  Now  draw  the  Hues  of 
sight  from  S  in  plan  through  P-P  to  the  corners  of  the  brick.  Where  these  lines  of  sight  intersect  P-P 
drop  light  lines  to  the  front  view.  Point  i  is  in  G-L  because  it  is  on  the  ground  and  touching  the  picture 
plane.  From  point  i  draw  a  line  toward  T'".  Measure  up  from  point  i  a  distance  equal  to  the  height 
of  the  brick,  locating  point  2  and  from  here  draw  toward  F";  then  draw  line  3-4.  Similarly  draw 
i-,5  2-6,  and  4-7  toward  F';  then  draw  5-6,  then  6-7  toward  V-  and  the  perspective  is  complete. 


23 


PLATE     8 


PLAN 


PER5PECT1VE 


Fia32  FIG.  33 


/• 


V 


V 


PtR5PECTIVE 


RECTANGULAR,  PRISMS 
IN   ANGULAR^  PERSPECTIVE 


H 


—  I 


HORJZONTAL   CII^LF, 
IN   ANGULAR^  PERSPECTIVE 


-I  H- 


IRREGULAR^  OBJECT 
IN   ANGULAR.  PERSPECTIVE 


FIG.34  FIG.  ^^7  // 


PLAN 


ELEVATION 


PARALLEL    PERSPECTIVE 
OF  AN  OBJECT  WITH 
R^CTANGU  LAR.  4^  IRREGULAR^  PART5 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Objects  not  Touching  the  Picture  Plane.— To  the  object  shown  in  Fig.  50  is  added  a  cubical  block, 
Fig.  52,  Plate  8,  considering  the  cube  lo  be  the  same  height  as  the  brick.  Draw  the  sight  lines  from  5 
to  the  plan  of  the  cube  and  from  their  intersection  with  P-P  drop  lines  to  the  front  view  as  before.  As 
the  cube  does  not  touch  the  picture  plane,  we  can  not  measure  its  height  directly  along  any  of  these 
lines.  One  wa)'  of  determining  this  height  is  to  consider  one  vertical  face  of  the  cube  as  being  brought 
forward  to  P-P  meeting  it  at  c  in  plan.  In  a  case  like  this,  line  d-e  must  be  brought  down  parallel  to 
line  5-1''  or  line  S-¥-  in  jilan.  Draw  from  c  down  to  G-L  at/.  Now  line  e-f  in  elevation  is  in  the  picture 
plane  and  distances  may  l)e  measured  along  it.  From/  measure  uj)  the  height  that  point  i  is  from  the 
ground,  marking  it  at  g  and  from  g  measure  up  the  height  of  the  cube  to  //.  Draw  from  g  and  //  to  F' 
which  will  give  the  perspective  of  face  1-2-3-4.  Now  draw  1-5,  2-6,  and  3-7  toward  V'-  and  then  6-7 
toward  F".     Any  part  of  an  object  back  of  the  picture  plane  may  be  measured  and  drawn  in  this  manner. 

Irregular  Objects. — A  perspective  of  the  triangular  pyramid,  Fig.  53,  Plate  8,  is  made  in  much  the 
same  way  as  the  prism  of  Fig.  52  with  a  few  exceptions.  Draw  the  plan,  locate  P-P  and  5  and  then  draw 
G-L  and  Il-L  in  elevation.  Draw  the  sight  lines  and  droj)  light  lines  to  the  front  view  as  before.  Since 
'Ae  object  is  not  rectangular  in  plan,  the  perspective  may  be  worked  out  from  the  two  lines  j-a  and  i-b 
which  are  drawn  at  right  angles  with  each  other  in  plan.  The  direction  of  i-a  and  i-b  will  determine  the 
effect  of  the  drawing.  Experience  and  trial  will  tell  just  what  angle  they  should  make  with  P-P  for  the 
best  result.  Having  drawn  these  two  lines,  draw  S-v^  and  S-v~  parallel  to  them  and  locate  F'  and  F'^ 
as  in  Fig.  52.  Now  in  plan  draw  a  line  parallel  to  \-a  through  apex  4  of  the  pyramid  intersecting  P-P 
at  d  and  a  similar  line  through  corner  3  locating  point  c  on  P-P.  Droj)  from  c  and  d  to  G-L  at  e  and/ 
then  draw  from  e  toward  F^  locating  the  perspective  of  corner  S.  Corner  1  is  of  course  on  G-L.  Draw 
1-V^  and  ;-F'.  Draw  from  the  plan  of  2  parallel  to  line  1-h,  locating  point  a  on  Hne  1-a.  Find  the 
perspective  of  point  a  on  the  perspective  line  1-V'-  and  draw  from  here  toward  F',  locating  the  perspec- 
tive of  corner  2.  Connect  /,  2  and  3  for  the  perspective  of  the  base  of  the  pyramid.  Measure  up  from 
/  to  ^,  a  distance  equal  to  the  height  of  the  pyramid.  Draw  from  g  toward  F-,  locating  the  apex  4  in 
perspective.  Connect  4  with  ;,  2  and  3.  Corner  2  might  have  been  found  in  the  same  manner  as 
corners  .?  and  4. 

Perspective  of  Circle. — A  circle  may  be  drawn  in  perspective,  Fig.  54,  Plate  8,  by  "boxing  it  in," 
drawing  the  perspective  of  the  "box"  or  square  according  to  the  method  of  Fig.  52  and  then  getting  the 
perspective  of  a  number  of  points  on  the  circle  by  the  method  of  locating  point  3  in  Fig.  53. 

Parallel  Perspective.- — \^'hen  the  plan  is  drawn  with  one  face  of  the  object  in  or  parallel  to  the 
picture  jilane  as  in  P"ig.  49,  Plate  7,  or  Fig.  55,  Plate  8,  the  drawing  will  be  in  parallel  perspective.  In 
this  we  ha\'e  but  one  vanishing  point  and  that  is  in  what  is  known  as  the  center  of  vision  and  is  on  the 
horizon  line  directly  opposite  the  station  point.  In  this  figure  the  sight  lines  as  drawn  from  S  to  the 
j)lan  would  cross  the  front  \'iew  and  so  are  omitted  for  a  portion  of  their  length.  Notice  that  a  part 
elevation  is  drawn  to  the  right.  By  doing  this  the  height  of  any  part  can  be  obtained  by  simply  pro- 
jecting from  the  elevation  across  to  the  perspective.  Since  the  object  here  is  not  touching  P-P  it  is 
necessary  to  bring  one  or  more  corners  forward  to  P-P  so  that  heights  may  be  measured  along  them. 
The  vertical  edge  1-2  has  been  brought  forward  parallel  to  S-v^  just  as  d-e  was  brought  to  P-P  in  Fig.  52. 
From  point  a  on  P-P  drop  to  G-L  at  b.  Project  over  from  the  elevation  at  the  right  and  locate  the  height 
of  the  base  b-c.  Project  from  b  and  c  toward  I''  to  locate  the  perspective  of  edge  1-2.  All  edges  at 
right  angles  to  those  whose  perspective  vanishes  in  F'  will  be  drawn  horizontally  or  parallel  to  G-L. 
Any  isolated  points  such  as  point  5  may  be  located  by  the  method  of  point  4  in  Fig.  53.  Locate  3-4 
similar  to  1-2.  etc. 

25 


PLATE    5 


-J  z 
U  -1  - 

o  4:  -b3 


ARrniTKCTrRAL  DRAWING 


On  Plate  9  is  a  perspective  drawing  t)f  a  portion  of  the  Cochran  residence.  Some  of  the  construc- 
tion lines  are  shown  and  only  the  methods  of  the  previous  plate  have  been  employed  in  working  it  out. 
Notice  that  the  station  point  has  been  taken  about  6  feet  above  the  ground  and  just  to  the  left  of  the 
walk.  This  is  the  wa>-  the  house  would  look  if  the  observer  were  standing  just  below  the  terrace  and 
looking  toward  the  front  door. 

As  a  matter  of  interest,  compare  this  mechanical  perspective  with  the  photograph  given  on  Plate 
6.  Even  though  the  station  point  of  the  camera  was  much  farther  away  than  that  of  the  opposite  draw- 
ing, and  details  of  the  house  were  altered  somewhat  in  building,  the  parallel  between  the  two  pictures 
will  be  seen  to  be  ciuite  close. 

The  sketchy  effect  was  obtained  by  first  drawing  the  perspective  mechanically  with  a  soft,  sharp 
pencil  and  then  inking  the  lines  freehand.  Notice  that  the  lines  of  the  siding  and  shingles  are  not 
continuous  but  are  just  suggested,  as  are  also  the  bricks  of  the  base  course,  the  muntins  of  windows,  etc. 

As  an  exercise  in  perspective  the  student  might  use  first  the  simple  Tuscan  entablature  of  Plate  63, 
then  one  of  the  more  complicated  Orders  and  finally  draw  up  a  perspective  of  the  residence  described  by 
Plates  21  to  30  or  some  other  rather  simple  building. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  that  every  little  detail  of  a  building  be  drawn  in  mechanical  perspective. 
The  main  lines  must  of  course  be  located  accurately  but  the  draftsman  will  soon  be  able  to  judge  as  to 
what  should  be  accurately  drawn  and  what  may  be  drawn  by  eye. 


27 


PLATE    10 


I50METRIC 


TOP 


FR.ONT 


FIG.  36 


FR.ONT 

^^IDE 

FIG.  37 


FIG.39-a  FIG.  39-b 


FIG.  60 


ARCHITECTUR;VL  DRAWING 


ISOMETRIC  DRAWING 

While  perspective  projection  is  the  method  of  pictorial  representation  generally  used  by  the  archi- 
tectural draftsman,  he  sometimes  finds  it  desirable  to  draw  a  quick  mechanical  picture  on  which  he  can 
measure  most  distances  directl>-.  This  can  not  be  done  on  a  perspective  as  most  of  the  distances  are 
more  or  less  distorted  as  has  already  been  seen. 

To  supply  this  need  of  an  easily  made  picture  upon  which  parts  may  be  measured  directly,  we  have 
a  system  of  drawing  called  Isometric  Drawing.  Although  the  ability  to  measure  distances  on  this  kind 
of  a  picture  is  gained,  there  is  somewhat  of  a  loss  in  pictorial  value,  as  the  Isometric  drawing  does  not 
show  the  object  exactly  as  seen  by  the  eye  of  the  observer. 

This  system  then  is  used  where  appro.ximate  pictorial  effect  is  desired  together  with  the  advantage 
of  measuring  distances  directly  on  the  picture.  Such  drawings  are  found  useful  to  the  architect  in 
making  pictorial  diagrams  of  piping  systems,  etc.,  where  artistic  appearance  is  not  a  factor.  In  these 
the  walls  and  floors  are  imagined  to  have  been  removed  showing  only  the  boilers,  tanks,  radiators,  etc., 
with  the  connecting  pipe  lines  all  in  the  proper  relation  to  each  other.  The  usual  Orthographic  Projec- 
tion drawing  would  be  inadequate  to  show  clearly  and  comprehensively  such  a  system  as  a  whole. 

This  pictorial  method  is  seldom  used  to  represent  the  building  itself  except  that  it  is  sometimes 
satisfactory  for  framing  drawings.     See  Plate  46. 

For  an  illustration  of  this  method,  the  brick  has  again  been  used  and  is  considered  to  be  8  inches 
long,  4  inches  wide  and  2  inches  high.  Fig.  56,  Plate  10.  First  it  is  turned  so  that  the  2  by  8-inch  face 
and  the  2  by  4-inch  face  make  angles  of  45  degrees  with  the  picture  plane,  Fig.  57;  then  tilted  up  or  down 
into  either  position  shown  in  Fig.  58a  or  58b  so  that  edges  A-B,  A-C  and  A-D  each  make  an  angle  of  1 20 
degrees  with  the  other.  These  lines  are  known  as  Isometric  Axes  and  all  lines  parallel  to  them  are 
Isometric  Lines. 

Of  course  edges  A-B,  A-C,  etc.,  are  foreshortened  when  the  brick  is  turned  into  this  position  but 
since  this  distortion  is  not  great,  all  isometric  lines  are  drawn  in  their  true  length.  Accurate  measure- 
ments may  be  made  only  along  or  parallel  to  these  isometric  lines.  Thus  in  Fig.  58a  or  58b  every  visible 
edge  of  the  object  is  shown  in  its  true  length  just  as  in  Fig.  56. 

If  A-D  is  drawn  vertically,  A-B  and  A-C  will  make  angles  of  30  degrees  with  the  horizontal,  either 
up  as  in  Fig.  59a  or  down  as  in  Fig.  59b. 

Now  to  represent  the  brick  in  isometric  projection.  Fig.  60,  first  draw  the  isometric  axes  like  Fig. 
59a  (if  it  is  desired  to  look  down  toward  the  top  of  the  brick)  or  like  Fig.  59b  (if  a  view  from  below  is 
needed);  then  in  Fig.  60  measure  along  A-D  2  inches  to  point  /,  then  along  A-B  8  inches  to  point  2 
and  along  A-C  4  inches  to  point  3.  Draw  lines  I-4  and  3-6  parallel  to  A-B  with  the  30  degree  triangle 
and  T-square;  then  draw  1-3  and  2-6  parallel  to  A-C.  Draw  3-5  and  2-4  vertically  and  the  isometric 
drawing  will  be  completed.  This  is  the  method  of  drawing  any  rectangular  prism  or  combination  of 
rectangular  prisms. 


29 


PLATE     ii 


ISOMETRIC  AND   OBLiaUE 


^ 

A 

^ 

J 

^^o 

^ 

l'*--...^ 

_— ^^ 

C      I 

I 

FIG.  62-0 


f  I  G.  63  b 


FIG.   64 


AKCIIITKCTrkAl.  DRAWING 


If  an  object  is  irre.uular,  imagino  a  traiisjiari'iit  rectangular  l)()x  to  he  placed  around  it,  the  box  then 
drawn  in  isonutrii  and  llu'  object  drawn  in  the  box.  'Phis  has  been  done  in  Fig.  6i,  Plate  ii,  where  the 
surrounding  box  is  lettered  A-B-C-D-R-F-G.  Make  the  rectangular  box  touch  as  much  of  the  object 
as  possible;  thus  the  base  of  this  object  touches  the  box  all  around  and  the  top  K-L-M-X  lies  in  the  toj)  of 
the  box  making  both  of  these  easy  to  draw.  Locate  corner  Q,  which  lies  in  the  top  of  the  base,  by  meas- 
uring from  J  to  T  the  distance  l'-(^  that  ])oint  Q  is  from  face  A-D-E-F;  then  draw  a  30-degree  line  from 
T  and  measure  along  it  to  Q  tlic  distance  that  Q  is  from  the  back  face  C-D-E  of  the  box.  Draw  Q-P 
then  P-0  with  the  ,v>degree  triangle  and  T-square,  the  length  of  each  being  measured  directly  as  they 
are  both  isometric  lines.     Connect  A',  L  and  X  with  P,  O  and  Q  and  the  drawing  will  be  completed. 

An  isometric  circle  may  be  made  by  first  drawing  a  circle  with  the  compass  and  putting  it  in  a 
square,  Fig.  62a,  Plate  11,  then  drawing  the  isometric  of  the  scjuare  and  then  the  isometric  circle  by 
means  of  coordinate  lines  in  the  isometric  square.  This  has  been  done  in  Fig.  62b  where  the  points 
A,  D  and  6"  \\a.\c  been  located  by  the  lines  A-B  and  A-C,  D-F.  and  D-F,  G-II  and  G-I,  all  of  which  are 
isometric  lines  whose  lengths  were  taken  from  Fig.  62a  and  laid  off  in  Fig.  62b. 

An  approximate  isometric  circle  may  be  drawn  by  first  drawing  the  isometric  square  as  before,  then 
the  perpendicular  bisectors  of  each  side  as  in  Fig.  63a,  b  and  c.  It  will  be  seen  that  these  bisectors  inter- 
sect at  B,  D,  E  and  F.  With  5  as  a  center  and  a  radius  B-G,  draw  the  circle  arc  from  G  to  H.  With  E 
as  a  center  and  a  radius  E-II  draw  a  circle  arc  from  //  to  /.  Then  with  D  and  F  as  centers  complete 
the  isometric  circle.     Figure  63a  is  a  horizontal  circle  while  Figs.  63b  and  63c  are  vertical  circles. 


OBLIQUE  DRAWING 

In  isometric  drawing  the  objectionable  foreshortening  of  lines  which  is  found  in  perspective  is 
eliminated,  but  the  distortion  of  shape  still  remains.  An  object  with  an  irregular  or  a  circular  face  is 
rather  difficult  to  draw  in  isometric  just  as  in  perspective.  This  is  noticed  in  Fig.  62b.  To  escape  this, 
the  method  called  Oblique  Projection  may  be  used.  Here  the  object  is  considered  as  having  the  front 
face  in  or  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  and  the  view  taken  from  a  point  to  one  side  and  slightly  above  or 
below  the  object  as  in  Fig.  64,  Plate  11.  That  face  which  is  parallel  to  the  picture  plane  is  drawn  just 
the  same  as  in  orthographic  j)rojection  and  in  this  lies  the  \alue  of  the  method,  for  circles  may  be  drawn 
with  the  compass,  etc.  Thus  face  A-B-C-D-E,  Fig.  64,  Plate  11,  is  drawn  in  its  true  shape.  Then  the 
lines  A-F,  B-G,  C-H,  etc.,  are  drawn  toward  the  right  or  left  and  upward  or  downward,  in  any  convenient 
direction,  usually  at  30  or  45  degrees  with  the  horizontal,  and  are  shown  in  their  true  length  as  in 
isometric. 

The  following  reminders  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  produce  the  best  results: 

Where  there  is  an  irregular  face,  place  it  parallel  to  the  picture  plane. 

Place  the  long  dimension  of  the  object  parallel  to  the  picture  plane. 

Where  the  irregular  face  is  the  short  side  of  the  object,  neglect  the  rule  about  the  long  dimension. 


31 


PLATE     12 


CONVENTIONAL     SHADOWS 


FIG.  65 


THE  CONVENTIONAL  RAY  OF  LIGHT 


FIG.  65-a 


Top 


Front 


i^hf  /^jj 


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5HAD0W  OF  VERTICAL  LINE  ON  HOR.IZONTAL  (J*- VERTICAL   PLANE5 


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Front 


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6 HADOW  OF  VERTICAL   LINE    ON   HORIZONTAL   MOULDING 


Front 

I 


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j/ope  ofji/rface 


.SHADOW  OF  VERTICAL    LINE   ON  A  6LOPING  SURFACE 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


SHADES  AND  SHADOWS 


The  drawings  thus  far  considered  are  what  are  known  as  Hne  drawings  and,  because  of  the  fact  that 
they  are  made  up  of  lines  alone,  they  lack  any  effect  of  depth  or  modeling.  This  may  be  gained  only 
by  representing  the  play  of  light  and  shade  on  the  Aarious  surfaces.  The  casting  of  shadows  puts  the 
third  dimension  into  the  otherwise  flat  drawing  by  indicating  j^rojections,  recesses,  mouldings,  etc.,  and 
thereby  livens  it  up  and  gives  an  impression  of  the  third  dimension  which  is  entirely  lacking  in  line 
drawings. 

The  elements  of  a  building  are  pleasing  to  the  eye  almost  solely  because  of  the  shadows  they  cast. 
Everyone  has  noticed  the  dull,  flat  appearance  of  even  the  most  beautiful  building  on  a  "grey  day"  and 
then  how  interesting  it  becomes  in  the  bright  sunlight.  The  cornice,  for  instance,  produces  a  broad  band 
of  shadow  across  the  top  of  the  wall;  the  details  of  the  cornice  break  this  shadow  up  into  interesting 
variations  making  of  it  a  richly  mottled  band  of  color;  see  Plates  15,  16  and  17.  The  mouldings  of  less 
projection  trace  narrower  lines  of  shadow  across  the  wall  and  the  spots  of  ornament  enrich  the  surfaces 
by  their  wealth  of  light  and  shade;  see  Plate  75.  Window  and  door  openings  cause  dark  areas  to  appear 
in  the  composition.  These  must  be  carefully  considered  as  they  appear  prominently  in  the  scheme. 
Therefore  the  architect  studies  the  details  of  his  design  not  alone  for  beauty  of  outline  but  also  for  the 
effect  of  light  and  shadow  that  they  will  produce. 

Here  again  the  artistic  sense  of  the  designer  must  be  brought  into  play,  but  the  student  can  at  once 
learn  the  mechanical  processes  by  which  shadows  are  determined. 

Shadows  may  be  cast  either  on  orthographic  projection  drawings  or  on  perspectives.  The  method 
will  be  explained  in  orthographic  projection,  and  the  perspective  shadows  will  then  be  a  matter  of 
application  of  the  method.  After  mastering  the  principles  as  here  given,  the  draftsman  will  be  able  to 
cast  many  shadows  with  reasonable  accuracy  by  simply  visualizing  them,  and  then  drawing  them  with- 
out the  complete  mechanical  construction.  Plates  15,  16  and  17  are  given  to  aid  in  casting  the  shadows 
of  the  Orders  of  Architecture  in  the  last  mentioned  manner.  Approximate  work  of  this  kind  should  not 
be  attempted  until  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  subject  has  been  made. 

Shadows  are  cast  mechanically  by  drawing  lines  (representing  rays  of  light)  down  past  the  object 
which  causes  the  shadow  to  that  upon  which  the  shadow  is  cast.  That  part  of  the  object  which  is 
turned  away  from  the  source  of  light  is  said  to  be  in  shade  and  that  part  of  another  object  from  which 
the  light  rays  are  kept  by  the  first  is  said  to  be  in  shadow.  The  shade  line  is  the  line  which  separates 
the  shaded  from  the  lighted  parts  of  an  object  and  the  shadow  line  is  the  outline  of  the  shadow.  Thus  it 
may  be  seen  that  the  shadow  line  is  the  shadow  of  the  shade  line.  Some  parts  of  a  complicated  object 
may  be  in  shade  and  other  parts  of  the  same  object  in  shadow  because  of  the  contour  of  its  surface. 
This  is  true  of  the  Attic  Ionic  base  of  Plate  14. 

The  sun  is  of  course  assumed  to  be  the  source  of  light  for  most  of  the  architectural  shades  and 
shadows.  Although  the  sun's  rays  are  not  exactly  parallel,  they  may  be  assumed  to  be  so  in  all  practi- 
cal work.  A  definite  position  of  the  source  of  light  is  also  fixed.  For  conventional  shadows  the  sun  is 
imagined  to  be  located  in  front  of,  above  and  toward  the  left  of  the  object,  so  as  to  throw  the  conventional 
light  rays  down  parallel  to  the  body-diagonal  of  a  cube  as  in  Fig.  65,  Plate  12.  With  the  front  face  of  the 
cube  toward  the  observer,  the  front,  top  and  side  views  of  this  body-diagonal  will  appear  as  45-degree 
lines,  Fig.  65a.     This  makes  the  conventional  light  rays  easy  to  draw  mechanically  and  produces  shad- 


33 


PLATE     12 


CONVENTIONAL     5HADOWS 


FIG.  65 


FIG.  65-a 


THE  CONVENTIONAL  RAY  OF  LIGHT 


Front 


£> 


3 


FIG.  66 


Top 


Front 


/yA/  ^yj 


b,c. 


b/c 

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5HAD0W  OF  VER.TICAL  LINE  ON  HOUIZONTAL  (}^  VERTICAL   PLANE5 


Front 


lia/jf  ^ayj 


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B-ofi/e. 


6 HADOW  OF  VERTICAL   LINE    ON   HORJZONTAL   MOULDING 


Front 

I 


l/y/i/  %7yj- 


j/qoe  0/  Jor/ace 


.SHADOW  OF  VERTICAL    LINE   ON  A  6L0PING  SURFACE 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


ows  equal  in  depth  to  the  projection  of  the  object  which  casts  them.  Thus  a  cornice  shadow  will  be 
just  as  wide  as  the  cornice  projection,  Plate  15.     This  fact,  if  kept  in  mind,  will  simplify  many  problems. 

Shadows  of  Points  and  Lines.— To  cast  the  shadow  of  a  point  upon  a  given  surface  draw  a  con- 
ventional ray  through  the  point  and  to  the  surface.  Where  this  ray  strikes  the  surface  is  the  required 
shadow  of  the  point.  This  is  the  fundamental  operation  in  all  shadow  casting,  but  its  application  is 
not  always  easy,  therefore  the  following  detailed  helps  are  given  for  various  cases. 

Where  the  shadow  of  a  straight  line  is  to  be  cast  on  a  plane  surface,  Pig.  66,  the  shadow  of  each  end 
of  the  line  is  located  and  these  points  connected  to  give  the  shadow  of  the  line.  If  the  given  line  or  the 
receiving  surface  is  curved,  a  number  of  these  shadow  points  are  determined  and  the  shadow  of  the  line 
drawn  through  them. 

In  Figs.  66  and  67  of  Plate  12  are  shown  both  pictorially  and  in  orthographic  projection,  a  vertical 
line  casting  a  shadow  on  horizontal  and  vertical  jjlanes.  It  will  be  readily  seen  that  the  shadow  of  but 
one  point  a  in  Fig.  66  is  necessary  to  determine  the  shadow  of  the  line,  while  in  Fig.  67  two  points  b  and 
c  must  be  used. 

When  a  vertical  line  casts  a  shadow  on  a  horizontal  moulding  (or  a  horizontal  line  on  a  vertical 
moulding),  as  in  Fig.  68  on  Plate  12,  the  front  view  of  that  shadow  is  the  same  as  the  profile  of  the 
moulding.  This  fact,  if  remembered,  will  make  short  work  of  many  problems  which  would  otherwise  be 
quite  tedious.  A  similar  labor  saver  is  shown  in  Fig.  69  on  Plate  12.  Here  it  is  seen  that  the  shadow  of  a 
vertical  line  on  a  sloping  surface,  when  viewed  from  the  front,  takes  the  same  angle  as  the  slope  of  the 
surface.     This  is  useful  when  working  with  the  shadows  of  chimneys  and  dormers  on  sloping  roofs. 


35 


PLATE     13 


SHADES    AND    SHADOWS 


J^uar'^ 


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FIG.  70 

6HADE  ^5HADOWOF  CYLINDEI^ 

FIG.71-a 

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FIG.  71 


6HADE  $/  6HADOW  OF  CONE 


Top 
View 


Apf.K 


.5HADE  ^SHADOW  OF  6PHER.E 


Front 
View 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Cylinders,  Cones  and  Spheres. — If  a  circle  is  jxirallel  to  a  plane  surface,  its  shadow  on  that  surface 
is  circular,  and  if  it  is  t)bli([uc  to  the  surface,  its  shadow  is  an  ellipse.  This  is  true  of  circle  shadows  on 
any  plane  surface  and  is  illustrated  in  the  drawing  of  the  three  objects  on  Plate  13.  A  jjractical  way  to 
draw  the  shadow  when  it  is  elliptical  is  to  first  draw  a  s(iuare  enclosing  the  circle  which  casts  the  shadow, 
then  locale  llie  sliadow  of  the  square  (as  in  Fig.  70  and  70a)  and  in  it  sketch  tlic  ellipse,  being  careful 
that  it  touches  and  is  tangent  to  the  sides  of  the  parallelogram  at  their  center  points,  a,  h,  r  and  d. 

Cylinder.  -  After  the  circular  or  elliptical  shadows  of  tJie  ends  of  the  right  circular  cylinder  have  been 
drawn,  the  straight  tangent  lines  are  drawn  completing  the  outline  of  the  shadow.  The  shade  lines  of 
the  cylinder  arc  found  by  drawing  the  45-degree  tangent  lines  as  noted  in  llie  lop  view.  Fig.  70a,  and 
locating  the  tangent  points  at  c  and/.  Projecting  down  to  the  front  view  from  these  points  will  locate 
the  front  view  of  the  shade  line. 

Cone. — The  shadow  of  a  conical  object  is  determined  by  first  locating  the  shadows  of  the  apex  and 
the  base  and  then  connecting  the  former  with  the  latter  by  tangent  lines  as  in  Figs.  71  and  71a.  The 
shade  lines  of  the  cone  are  found  by  projecting  from  the  tangent  points  g  and  //  in  the  top  view,  back 
(at  45  degrees)  to  the  base  atj  and  k,  then  connecting  these  points  with  the  ape.x. 

Sphere. — The  shadow  of  a  sphere  is  determined  by  the  use  of  a  cylinder  of  tangent  light  raj'S  as  in 
Fig.  72.  Since  this  is  a  rather  tedious  process,  a  shorter  method  is  given;  see  Fig.  72a.  In  the  top  view 
draw  the  45-degree  tangent  lines  through  m-m,  and  /-/,  and  a  center  line  through  n-o,,  light]}-.  Draw 
line  m-l  through  p  (at  45  degrees).  Draw  m-o  at  an  angle  of  30  degrees  with  m-l,  locating  0.  Lay  off 
p-n  ecjual  to  p-o.  This  gi\es  the  major  and  minor  axes  of  the  elliptical  shade  line  in  the  top  view.  Draw 
the  shade  line  by  the  method  of  Fig.  38,  Plate  5.  Next  on  the  front  view  draw  the  45-degree  liner's' 
through  center  />'.  Locate  /'  b}-  drawing  s'-t'  at  an  angle  of  30  degrees  with  r'-s',  then  lay  off  p'-n'  equal 
to  p'-l'  and  draw  the  ellipse  as  in  the  top  view.  The  shadows  of  points  m,  I,  0,  and  n  are  found  by  draw- 
ing conventional  light  rays  through  the  points  in  the  top  and  front  views,  locating  m^,  l„  0,  and  «„  and 
drawing  the  elliptical  shadow  line  in  the  top  view  by  the  trammel  method.  If  the  shadow  is  cast  on 
an  irregular  or  a  curving  surface,  the  shadows  of  a  number  of  points  of  the  shade  line  may  be  found  and 
the  shadow  line  drawn  through  them. 

The  methods  thus  far  explained  are  known  as  oblique  projection  methods.  They  are  difficult  of 
application  where  double  curved  surfaces  are  to  be  dealt  with.  For  the  solution  of  a  problem  involving 
such  surfaces,  the  slicing  method  is  found  useful;  This  method,  while  not  dii^licult,  necessitates  a  great 
deal  of  ver\-  careful  work  for  an  accurate  shadow. 


37 


260982 


PLATE     i4 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Slicing  Method. — Through  the  column  base  on  Plate  14  a  scries  of  imaginary  vertical  cutting  planes 
(see  also  upper  left-hand  corner  of  plate)  is  passed  and  the  lines  which  these  planes  cut  on  the  surface  of 
the  object  are  drawn.  The  cutting  planes  are  passed  at  45  degrees  in  the  plan  view  and  consequently 
contain  a  number  of  the  conventional  rays.  Then  the  lines  of  intersection  are  drawn  on  the  elevation 
(see  also  upper  right-hand  corner  of  plate).  These  lines  of  intersection  are  found  by  drawing  the  pro- 
jections of  a  series  of  circular  lines  on  the  surface  of  the  base,  finding  where  these  circles  go  through  the 
cutting  planes  as  at  a,  h,  c,  d,  e,  etc.,  in  the  plan  and  projecting  up  to  the  corresponding  lines  at  a',  b', 
c',  d',  e',  etc.,  on  the  elevation.  Locate  enough  points  to  accurately  fix  the  lines  of  intersection.  Where 
the  cutting  planes  pass  through  a  moulding  of  circular  section,  as  the  upper  two  members  of  this  base, 
the  line  of  intersection  with  that  moulding  wiU  be  an  ellipse,  and  may  be  drawn  by  the  method  of  Fig. 
38,  Plate  5,  after  the  two  axes  or  half-axes  have  been  located,  as  m'-n'  and  k'-l'  on  the  elevation.  The 
cutting  planes  may  be  passed  tlirough  wherever  lines  of  intersection  are  thought  necessary. 

Now  in  the  elevation  draw  the  45-degree  tangent  lines  as  shown.  These  light  rays  will  locate 
points  of  tangcncy  and  intersection  through  which  the  shade  and  shadow  lines  may  be  drawn. 

Other  Shadows. — Some  of  the  shadows  of  a  building  are  more  difficult  to  draw  as,  for  example, 
those  of  the  Corinthian  capital  and,  except  for  widely  isolated  cases,  these  shadows  need  not  be  accu- 
rately determined.  Shadows  of  the  Doric  and  Ionic  Orders  are  given  on  Plates  15  and  16.  Plate  17 
is  an  example  of  student  work  in  casting  shadows  of  the  Corinthian  Order.  These  will  serve  as  an 
approximate  guide  when  shadows  of  the  Orders  are  needed. 


39 


PLATE    15 


_.S2a^ZSES 


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PLATE     17 


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ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


RENDERING 

Architectural  drawings  may  be  rendered  or  colored  in  a  number  of  different  mediums  according  to 
the  result  desired.  Most  comnK)n  among  these  are  pencil,  crayon  and  water-color.  The  shadows,  the 
relative  color  of  materials,  and  the  environment  of  the  building  may  thus  be  indicated  either  in  mono- 
tone or  in  their  natural  colors.  The  medium  first  used  for  the  rendering  of  school  problems  is  water- 
color  in  monotone  washes.  These  washes  are  of  two  kinds,  the  smooth  and  the  settled  wash.  In  the 
first  the  color  dries  leaving  a  smooth  e\en  tint  while  in  the  latter,  if  apjjlied  quite  wet  and  allowed  to 
stand  undisturbed,  a  mottled  effect  is  secured.  India  ink  is  perhaps  the  best  color  for  smooth,  soft 
grey  washes,  while  Charcoal  Gray,  French  Blue  and  other  combinations  will  produce  the  settled  wash. 

Material. — The  material  needed  is  as  follows: — India  ink,  which  comes  in  sticks,  a  slate  ink  slab 
in  which  the  ink  is  ground  by  rubbing  it  around  on  the  slate  with  water,  a  set  of  camel's  hair  or  sable 
brushes  which  will  come  to  a  good  fine  point  when  wet,  a  nest  of  china  water-color  saucers,  a  soft  sponge, 
some  white  blotters  and  a  piece  of  clean,  absorbent  cloth.  Later,  if  the  student  desires  to  do  color  work, 
he  may  secure  the  necessary  water-colors.  He  will  have  much  to  learn  in  monotone  however  before 
attempting  the  other,  and  should  leave  that  for  future  dcveloi^ment. 

Moimting  the  Paper.— So  that  the  paper  will  not  wrinkle  up  when  water  is  applied,  it  must  be 
mounted  or  pasted  down  onto  the  drawing  board.  For  this  operation  are  needed  a  clean,  soft  sponge, 
some  white  blotting  paper  and  a  bottle  of  Higgin's  Drawing  Board  Paste  (not  mucilage).  There  is  no 
paste  "just  as  good."     Follow  the  directions  carefully  and  a  satisfactory  stretch  will  be  obtained. 

Be  sure  that  the  board  is  clean,  then  lay  the  jmper  on  it  (face  up)  and,  using  the  sponge,  wet  the 
paper  thoroughly  with  clean  water,  being  careful  not  to  rub  the  surface  hard.  Squeeze  the  water  from 
the  sponge  and  take  up  any  that  stands  in  puddles.  Turn  the  paper  over,  keeping  it  flat  in  the  process, 
and  wet  the  back  similarly.  Take  up  the  surplus  water  and,  with  the  blotter,  take  the  moisture  well  out 
of  the  paper  for  a  strip  about  an  inch  wide  all  around  the  edge.  It  is  now  ready  for  pasting.  The  j)aste 
may  be  taken  in  a  ball  beneath  the  fore  fingers  of  the  two  hands  and  run  along  onto  the  dried  strip  around 
the  paper.  It  is  too  heavy  to  be  applied  with  a  paste  brush  and  should  not  be  thinned  with  water.  Rub 
it  out  until  it  lies  in  a  very  thin  coat.  If  left  thick  in  places  it  is  apt  to  crack  off.  Now  turn  the  paper 
over  and  press  the  pasted  edges  down  securely  to  the  board  at  the  same  time  stretching  out  all  wrinkles 
and  pulling  the  paper  taut.  It  sometimes  helps  if  a  number  of  thumb  tacks  are  set  around  the  edge  until 
the  paste  has  dried  completely.  While  the  paste  is  drying,  keep  the  center  of  the  paper  slightly  moist 
up  to  within  two  inches  from  the  edge.  This  prevents  any  tension  from  coming  onto  the  pasted  edge 
before  it  is  dry.  When  the  center  is  allowed  to  dry  the  sheet  will  be  found  to  have  stretched  tightly, 
affording  a  perfect  surface  for  both  drawing  and  rendering.  The  stretching  of  the  paper  can  be  over- 
done and,  when  such  is  the  case,  it  may  pull  so  tightly  upon  drying  as  to  break  when  moistened  again 
in  the  rendering  of  the  drawing.  It  will  take  the  mounting  of  several  sheets  to  acquaint  the  student 
with  the  ins  and  outs  of  the  process. 


4.3 


PLATE     IS 


ARCIIITKCTURAL  DRAWING 

F*ractice  Sheet. — After  thr  jKipcr  has  boon  mdunU-d,  a  ])ractice  sheet  should  be  laid  out  and  ren- 
dered in  monotone.  Plate  i8  is  a  suggestion  for  this  sheet.  It  contains  an  even  wash,  one  graded  from 
light  down  to  dark,  one  from  dark  to  light,  and  the  shades  and  shadows  of  two  simple  objects  and  two 
mouldings.  This  sheet  should  be  mastered  before  any  other  work  in  rendering  is  attempted.  A  prac- 
tical size  for  the  sheet  is  about  14  by  kj  im  hes,  divided  into  six  eiiuai  parts  as  indicated.  The  cylinder 
in  the  fourth  space  is  1  '  _.  inches  in  diameter  and  ^  inches  long  and  its  center  line  is  J-^  inch  in  front  of 
the  wall  on  which  the  shadow  is  cast.  The  (lutta  in  the  next  si)ace  is  2I2  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
bottom,  1'^  at  the  toj)  and  is  2 '4  inches  high.  It  is  suspended  from  a  3''8  by  i"'g  by  1 2-inch  block  and 
its  center  line  is  -'s  inch  in  front  of  the  wall.  The  mouldings  of  the  last  space  may  be  drawn  approxi- 
mately as  shown. 

Laying  the  Washes. — First  prepare  the  india  ink  in  the  slate  slab,  then  mix  it  in  three  or  four  differ- 
ent intensities  in  the  china  saucers.  Wet  the  paper,  using  the  sponge  and  clean  water,  then  take  up  all 
water  which  stands  on  the  surface.  If  the  paper  is  not  damp  it  will  be  difficult  to  prevent  the  color  from 
drj'ing  quickly  and  producing  hard  lines  in  the  wash. 

Find  by  trial  on  the  border  of  the  paper  if  the  most  dilute  saucer  of  ink  is  of  the  desired  intensity  for 
the  first  exercise.  With  the  brush  full  of  this  ink  begin  at  the  top  of  the  space,  and,  working  from  side  to 
side,  lay  on  the  wash  as  (juickly  as  possible,  keeping  the  board  slightly  tilted  so  that  the  surj^lus  color 
will  drain  toward  the  bottom  of  the  space.  When  the  lower  line  is  reached,  squeeze  the  color  from  the 
brush  and  take  up  the  surplus  color  from  the  paper  with  the  brush  tip.  Care  must  be  exercised  to  pre- 
vent one  part  of  the  wash  from  drying  more  quickly  than  another  as  this  is  fatal  to  a  smooth  wash. 
The  ability  to  do  this  well  can  come  only  by  practice. 

The  second  wash  is  laid  similarly  except  that  the  first  brush  full  at  the  top  of  the  space  is  clear  water. 
Then  a  brush  of  diluted  ink  from  the  next  saucer  is  used  and  so  on,  each  brush  full  being  darker  than  the 
other  until  the  darkest  part  at  the  bottom  is  reached.  The  even  grading  of  the  result  will  depend  upon 
the  skill  and  care  with  which  the  darker  color  is  added. 

In  the  third  rectangle  the  previous  process  has  been  reversed,  the  darkest  color  used  at  the  top  and 
more  water  added  as  the  wash  progresses  downward. 

The  objects  in  the  lower  rectangles  are  given  to  illustrate  the  fact  that  both  lights  and  shadows 
vary  in  intensity.  The  surface  or  part  of  a  surface  to  which  the  sun's  rays  are  perpendicular,  is  always 
the  brightest,  and  the  degree  of  brightness  diminishes  as  the  surface  is  turned  away  from  this  position. 
These  contrasts  become  less  pronounced  as  the  distance  from  the  observer  to  the  object  increases. 
This  fact  ma}-  be  employed  in  rendering  to  give  the  effect  of  relative  projection  of  building  parts.  The 
walls  nearest  to  the  observer  are  rendered  more  brilliantly  than  those  at  a  distance  and  the  detail  of  the 
distant  parts  is  kepit  less  distinct  than  that  close  up.  The  student  can  observe  this  everj'where  in 
nature.     The  greater  the  distance,  the  more  indistinct  the  detail  and  color  contrasts. 

In  rendering  a  curved  object  such  as  the  cylinder  of  Plate  18,  its  lighted  surface  should  first  be 
modeled  by  a  very  light  graded  wash  as  indicated,  showing  the  parts  of  greatest  light  intensity,  etc. 
Then  the  shaded  part  and  the  shadow  should  be  similarly  treated.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  shadow  is 
slightly  darker  than  the  shaded  surface.  This  is  caused  by  light  being  reflected  back  onto  the  shaded 
surface  from  the  bright  parts  of  the  wall  on  which  the  shadow  is  cast.  Because  of  this  reflected  light, 
the  brightest  part  of  the  shade  of  a  curved  surface  is  usually  directly  opposite  the  most  intensely  illu- 
minated point.  The  shade  line  of  such  a  surface  is  not  really  a  distinct,  clean-cut  line,  but  shadow  lines 
are  always  sharp  and  well  defined.  The  mouldings  illustrate  the  principle  of  reflected  light  in  shade  and 
shadow. 

The  Attic  base  of  Plate  14  will  also  serve  to  illustrate  the  varying  intensities  of  light  and  shade  and 
the  effect  of  reflected  light. 

45 


ARTICLE  V 

SCALE  DRAWINGS 

Plates  19  to  45 

Working  dramngs  consist  of  all  plans,  elevations  (both  exterior  and  interior),  sections,  scale  details 
and  full  size  details  necessary  lor  the  adequate  completion  of  the  work. 

The  scale  drawings  01  a  building  are  those  which  show  the  general  layout  of  the  building  as  a  whole, 
locating  the  various  features  of  the  scheme,  showing  their  relation  to  each  other  and  giving  the  principal 
dimensions. 

The  scale  dra%\'ings  of  the  architect  correspond  in  a  sense  to  the  assembly  drawings  of  the  machine 
designer.  The  characteristic  of  the  architect's  scale  drawing  is  that  it  deals  with  general  conditions 
and  represents  them  by  symbols  rather  than  to  show  each  feature  exactly  as  it  would  appear.  On 
Plates  19  and  20  are  gi\en  these  symbols  which  represent  the  various  materials  of  construction  and  the 
fixtures  which  are  usually  found  in  the  average  building.  The  use  of  the  plan  symbols  is  illustrated  on 
Plates  21,  22  and  23. 

In  general,  when  any  feature  is  to  be  given  afterward  in  a  detail  drawing,  it  is  shown  on  the  scale 
drawing  merely  by  a  quickly  made  symbol  or  a  note.  This  is  also  true  of  features  with  which  the  builder 
is  familiar  and  of  which  there  will  be  no  detail  drawn.  Do  not  indicate  or  dimension  a  feature  in  detail 
on  the  scale  drawings  when  you  intend  later  to  make  a  large  scale  or  full-size  drawing  of  it,  as  this  would 
be  useless  repetition. 

For  example,  a  fireplace  is  often  located  on  the  scale  drawings  by  dimensioning  to  its  center  line  on 
the  plan  and  giving  but  few  other  figures.  Then  on  the  detail,  everything  is  carefully  shown  and 
thoroughly  dimensioned. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  scale  drawing  is  merely  an  indication  while  the  accurate  description  is 

left  for  the  detail. 

Determination  of  Scale. — The  first  thing  to  be  decided  about  the  so-called  scale  drawings  is  the 
scale  at  which  they  shall  be  drawn.  This  is  fixed  by  the  size  of  the  building  and  the  degree  of  fineness 
with  which  we  wish  to  go  into  detail. 

The  average  residence  is  drawn  at  a  scale  of  ' ./'  =  i'  —  o",  while  a  \  er\-  large  house  must  be  drawn 
at  a  scale  of  '^"  or  Ife"  =  i'  ~  ""■  I"  deciding  the  size  of  the  sheet  to  use,  bear  in  mind  the  fact 
that  the  tracing  cloth  and  bluei)rint  i)ai)er  of  which  we  will  hear  later,  come  in  widths  of  30,  36  and  42 
inches  and  sometimes  wider.     lor  sizes  of  other  paper  see  page  10. 

Method  of  Laying  Out  the  Drawing.  Plans  are  usually  drawn  with  the  front  of  the  building  toward 
the  botlijm  oi  the  sliecl.      if  li(iwc\tr  the  building  is  very  deej)  and  narrow,  this  may  not  be  possible. 

The  principal  plan  should  be  laid  out  first.  This  in  most  buildings  will  he  the  first  lloor  jilan.  Then 
the  second,  third,  etc.,  Hour  |)lans  arc  drawn,  the  basement  plan  usually  being  drawn  last.  This  is 
almost  always  the  best  order  of  proc  edure,  no  matter  what  the  building  may  be. 


46 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Center  Lines. — If  the  plan  is  to  be  symmetrical  about  a  center  line,  this  line  is  the  first  thing  to  be 
drawn  and  the  plan  worked  out  each  way  from  it.  Ink  this  center  line  to  ]>revent  its  being  erased  when 
changes  are  made  in  the  pencil  drawing.  Notice  how  the  plan  on  Plate  32  has  been  worked  from  the 
several  center  lines.     This  is  true  also  of  elevations;  see  Plate  24. 

After  locating  the  center  lines  if  there  are  any,  lay  out  the  rooms  according  to  the  previous  approxi- 
mately determined  dimensions  without  indicating  doors  or  windows.  Draw  the  lines  vcrv  lightly  with 
an  //  ]iencil. 

Location  of  Doors  and  Windows. —  Now  locate  the  doors  and  windows  by  center  lines  only.  Second 
story  windows  are  usuall\-  located  directly  above  those  of  the  first  stor\-  l)ul  this  is  a  matter  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  design  of  the  elevation  as  is  also  the  width  of  these  openings.  After  the  elevations  have 
been  worked  up,  these  features  may  be  drawn  on  the  plans,  using  the  symbols  of  Plates  19  to  23  and 
48  to  51. 

The  Width  and  Kind  of  Doorways  and  other  openings,  will  be  determined  by  the  kind  of  building 
with  which  the  draftsman  is  concerned  or  by  the  use  to  which  the  building  will  be  j)ut.  Thus  the  front 
door  of  a  residence  should  not  be  less  than  3'  —  o"  wide  and  other  outside  doors  not  less  than  2'  —  10" 
wide.  The  communicating  doors  or  those  in  the  partition  walls  of  a  residence  should  be  at  least  2'  — 
8"\vide  to  allow  the  passage  of  furniture.     Closet  doors  may  be  2'  —  6"  wide  or  less. 

Door  Heights  will  vary  according  to  the  design  of  the  room.  Sometimes  a  panel  is  placed  above  the 
door  to  give  a  feeling  of  additional  height.  It  looks  well  in  a  residence  to  have  both  window  and  door 
heads  at  the  same  height  above  the  fioor  if  this  can  be  done. 

The  term  righl-hatid  or  left-hand  door  will  be  met  with  and  should  be  understood.  When  you  enter 
the  house,  if  the  door  opens  away  from  you  and  swings  toward  your  right,  it  is  a  right-hand  door;  if  it 
swings  away  from  you  and  toward  x'our  left,  it  is  a  left-hand  door.  A  knowledge  of  this  is  cjuite  impor- 
tant in  buying  hardware. 

Influence  of  Stock  Material. — Stock  sizes  of  material  often  have  a  bearing  on  the  design  of  a  build- 
ing. This  is  particularly  true  of  residence  work.  For  example,  joist  come  only  in  even  lengths,  and  if  a 
room  were  14'  —  o"  X  20'  —  o"  the  nearest  size  of  joist  to  span  this  room  would  be  16'  —  o"  long, 
leaving  a  waste  of  about  i'  —  4"  for  each  joist.  If  this  room  were  made  13'  —  4"  or  15'  —  4"  wide  the 
entire  14'  —  o"  or  16'  —  o"  joist  could  be  used,  for  the  joist  extend  into  the  wall  about  4"  at  each  end. 
Of  course  it  is  not  always  possible  to  prevent  this  waste. 

Wall  thicknesses  are  fixed  by  the  material  of  which  the  wall  is  built.  A  frame  wall  is  about  6 
inches  thick,  a  brick  wall  is  9,  13,  17,  etc.,  inches  thick  and  stone  walls  vary  from  12  inches  up. 

Where  soil  pipes  are  placed  in  the  walls,  the  pipe  joints  would  project  through  the  plaster  and  into 
the  room  if  4  inch  studs  or  framing  timbers  were  used.  To  prevent  this  the  studs  must  be  furred  or 
framed  out  far  enough  so  that  the  plaster  will  cover  the  pipe.  Sometimes  6-inch  studs  are  used  in  such 
a  wall. 

Window  glass  comes  in  even  sizes  and  for  this  reason  it  is  well  to  make  all  window  frames  of  a  size 
to  take  the  stock  glass,  particularly  if  there  are  a  great  many  of  the  lights  to  be  furnished. 


47 


PLATE    19 


PLAN    5YMBOL5    FOR.  PLUMBING   FlATURt5 


+     -f     ^^^^  FAUCEiT 


iOIL    PlPt   IN  A-  rRj?,ME:  WALL  VENT  PIPE:  [N  K  fR^Mt  WALL 


WATERr^UPPLY    RJ5ER_5     [N   A 
PR^ME:  WALL 


HOU5E:  J)R_AIN   UNDE:B^  ^LOOP^  .50ET  TILE:  DRAIN   fOI\.  RAIN-WATER,  E:TC. 


COLD.  H'  CIRelir  ATiors. 

WATE:I\.-5U        .Y     PIP    "^ . 


^ATH-  TUB 


5HOWE:R^ 

X 

iiATH-. 


^^^^^^       Z 


WALL     LAVATORY 


CORN&R^ 
LAVATORy 


y//yy^^^>^>^yy.yy/^yx^.    '^yyyy^^^>^^yxxxyyyyyyy.<^    Yy^yy/z/y^   ^  ,     ^, 


-^ivf 


KJTCH-ErN     SINI^ 
WITH  TWO  DRAIN  BOARDS 


LAUNDRY    TUBS 


WATEiR^  CLOSET 


y. 


URJNAL 


5YMBOL3     FOP^  BUILDING    MATLRJAL 


IN     SEiCTION 


IN    EiLtVATION 


w^^ 


IN     3E:CT10N 


IN    ELE:VATION 


■^A    Structural 

-V^  JILE: 


TE:R.RA 
COTTA 


PLA5TE:K_ 

••|    Or^5tucco 


CONCRETE: 
OR_  CE:ME:NT 

)vfE:TAL 


DU£   TO   THE:    PACT    THAT    THE:    PLAN.5    Or   DlhF-E:R.ENT    DI^PT5ME:N    WOULD    Jit    LIKELY 
TO   HAVE:    THE:  VARIOUS    MXTUHtS     E:TC.    RE:PR|:5E:NTE:D    IN    W1DE:LY    J)IPF-E:RIN&  MANNErR^, 
IT   15  WE:LL    TO   ACCErPT   A    STANDARD    5YME.OL    rOR^  tACH"    E-ErATUKE:    OE-  THE:  BUILDING. 
TH15    MAi'^E:5    f-OP^  E:A5E:     IN    TE+E:    lNTE:RPRIrTATION     OF"  THE:    DRAWINGS    JbY    E:VE:RyONE: 
CONCfcRNErD.         THE:    SYMBOLS     OEiNErR^LLY    USE:D    FOR^  PLUMJblNG    AND  EtfcATING    FIX- 
TURES   AR|:     AS    5HOWN  .       THfc  WIRING    SYMBOLS     HAVE    £iEEN    ADOPTED    SN  THE 
NATIONAL    CONTRACTORS    ASSOCIATION    AND    THE    AMERICAN     INSTITUTE:    OE  ARCHITECTS 
AND    ART:    ACCEPTED    £>Y   MOST     OEEICE5  .      THE   SYMBOLS    USED    POR^  PIPING   AND    EOR, 
BUILDING    MATERIAL    ARE    AT    GREATER^  VARIANCE,    MOST    OEEICE5     E5TABLI6EHNO    THEIR, 
OWN    STANDARD    ACCORDING   TO  THE    NEEDS    OE    EACH    CASE.       IE  THIS    IS  DONE:.  A  K|:Y 
TO  THESE    SYMBOLS    SHOULD    ACCOMPANY    THE    DRAWING. 


SYMBOLS    I  OR    MATERIAL  AND    HXTURii^ 


PLATE    20 


PLAN    5YMBOL5    FOP.   ELECTRIC    FIXTURES 


(COPYRJ  GHTED 


/?<       CtlLIMG-  OUTLfcT.    THt    NUMDtR.  INDICATES 
^        THE:   NUMBER.  OF-   16  CANDLfc  POWER,  LAMP5. 

)«<-4.     COMBINATION  (ELECTRIC  AND  GA5)  CEILING 
>4<Z    OUTLET,    4  ELECTRIC  AND   2   GAS    LAMPS. 

WALL    £)RACK,ET   OUTLET.     NUMBER.  INDICATED 
NUMBEFL  OE  16   C.P.  LAMP^. 

COMBINATION   (ELECTRIC  AND  GAS)  WALL  OUTLET 
WITH-  a  ELECTRIC    AND    I    GAS    LAMP.S  . 
OUTLET  IN  WALL.  USUALLY   IN  M5EBOARX).  NUMBER 
INDICATES    16  CP.   LAMPS  TO  Bt   ACCOMMODATED. 
ELOOR^  OUTLET.  NUMBER^  INDICATES    NUMBER. OE 
16  C.P.   LAMP5   TO  Bt  ACCOMMODATED. 


MAIN  OR.EEEDERcRyN  CONCEALED 

"under.  THE  r-Loorv.. 

MAIN  OR^EEEDERjRUN   CONCEALED 
"UNDER.    THE     ELOOI\.  ABOVE:  . 

■MAIN   OR,.  PEEDER^- RUN     ErXPOStD  . 

BRANCH-  CIRPUIT-RJJN  CONCEALErD 
"UNDER^  THE    ELOOR^ 

BR.ANCH  ClRCUIT-RyN  CONCE:ALE:D 
'  UNDER.  THE:    ELOOR.  ABOVE  . 


OUTLET    EOR,.  OUTDOOR.    5TANDARJ5    OR^POST.       . 

NUMBER,.  INDICATES    1(6  C.P.  LAMPS. 
)|5l(4    COMBINATION    OUTDOOR^  OUTLET   EOR.  STANDAR.D. 
SS*;  a    4  ELECTRIC    AND   2   GAS    LAMPS . 

^      DRPP    CORP    OR,.  SUSPENDED    OUTLET. 
®         ONE-LAMP    OUTLET     EOR.  LAMP    RECEPTACLE. 
3        AR$^    LAMP    OUTLET. 

(^         SPECIAL    OUTLET    EOR,  LIGHT,  HEAT  OR.  POWER.. 
CrCCD  CEILING    PAN    OUTLET. 
^S'        SINGLE    POLE     .SWITCH-    OUTLET. 
-      DOUBLE    POLE    .SWITCH-    OUTLET. 
THR.EE-WAY    SWITCH    OUTLET. 
POUR.- WAY    SWITCH    OUTLET. 
AUTOMATIC     DOOR,.    SWITCH    OUTLET. 
ELECTRpLIER.   SWITCH-    OUTLET. 
METER^  OUTLEiT. 
Bl    DISTRJBLTION      PANEL. 
Ijijlgggg    JUNCTION    OR.  PULL   JiOX  . 

y^!"     MOTOR.  OUTLET.    NUMBER,.  INDICATES    HOiyE-POWER.. 
[>><]     MOTOR.  CONTRPL    OUTLET  . 
=^^    TRAN3POR.MER,.. 


B 


H 
N 

9 

Q 
B 

|-^D 
m 

lihli 


■  —  BRANCH    CIRCUIT -R,UN     EXPOSED. 
-—POLE     LINE. 

RJSER,.. 

TELEPHONE    OUTLET.    PRiVATt     SfcRyiCE  . 

TELEPHONE:   OUTLET.    PUBLIC    SERVICE. 

£>ELL    OUTLET. 

BUZZER^   OUTLET  . 
PUSH    BUTTON    OUTLET. 

ANNUNCIATOR^.     NUMBER.    INDICATES    THE 
NUMBER.  OP    POINTS  . 

5PEAK,INO     TUBE  . 

watchman's     CLOCK.   OUTLE:T . 
watchman's     STATION    OUTLET. 
MASTER,.  TIME  CLOCK,  OUTLET. 
SECONDARY     TIME    CLOCK,   OUTLET. 
DOOR.  OPENER,.. 

SPECIAL    OUTLET    EOR.  SIGNAL    SYSTEMS. 
fiATTEKY    OUTLET. 


PLAN     5YME)OL5    POIR.   GrA5    PIPING" 


.MAIN     OR^   SUPPLY    PIPE     CONCEALED 
"UNDER.  THE     PLOOR.. 

.MAIN      OR.    SUPPLY    PIPE      CONCEALED 
"UNDER,  THE     PLOOR.  ABOVE  . 


^=^=^=  £>R,ANCH      PIPE      CONCEALED      UNDER^ 
TH-fc    PLOOR.. 

^^^^^.^    BRANCH     PIPE      CONCE-ALED      UNDErR^ 
THE     PLOOR.   ABOVE:  . 


:==  =  ===MAIN      OIV.  SUPPLY    PIPE:     EXPOSED. 

-0-— O-STRJrET     GAS    MAIN. 


===■=    BRANCH-     PIPE:      ErXPOSE:D  . 
O  RI5E:R^. 


HEATINGr  AND   VENTILATING-   6YMbOL5 


T" 


•STEAM  PIPE  LINE:. 
■GLOBE:    VALVE:. 
•TEE  . 


■R|:TURN    LINE. EXHAUST    LINE. DRI.P     LINE:. 


GATE    VALVt  . 
RISE   OR,DRpP. 


CHECK.   VALVE 

TEE    RISE 
OR.  DRPP  . 


ELBOW. 

ELBOW     RJSe 
OR.  DROP. 


STEAM    OR  HOT  WATER. 
R,ADIATOR,.  . 


HOT    AIR  REGISTER,      VENT.  REGISTER. 
IN    &■  WALL  .  IN    &■'  WALL  . 


HOT  AIR.  REGISTER,       VENTILATING   REGISTER^ 
IN    PLOOR..  IN     PLOOR,.. 


Id  COL. 20-40°' 


^sc 


t    12"»  l8"H.A.RtG. 


T   1 2"- 18" VENT. 


12^ 


20    HTAl'REa 


I     ..  II 

1 2. «  20    VENiT.  R.EG. 

Lf M M I ii^ * ' '    '' 

mtttttmitfy,'^] 


NUMBER    OP   COLUMNS 

AND    NUMBER.  OP  SQ^.  PT.  R^O- 

RADIATING  SURPACfc  NOTED.  ALWAYS     NOTE    ON     THE    DRAWING    THE     K.1ND     AND    SIZE:     Op    R.fcGI5TER.5. 


SYMBOLS     FOR.    FIXTURES 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Elevations. — Before  developing  the  plans  very  far  the  elevations  should  be  blocked  in  and  the  plans 
and  elevations  carried  along  together  to  secure  the  best  result.  It  is  well  to  draw  the  elevations  on 
transparent  tracing  paper  as  this  facilitates  the  work.  This  paper  may  be  laid  directly  over  the  plan 
and  locations  read  through  it. 

An  elevation  should  indicate  everything  on  the  outside  of  the  building  from  the  grade  to  the  chim- 
nev  caps  and  that  portion  of  the  basement  wall  which  is  out  of  sight  in  the  ground  should  be  shown  by 
dotted  lines  as  on  Plates  24  to  27. 

First  decide  on  the  story  liciglits  or  distances  from  floor  to  floor  and  mark  them  out  on  the  sheet. 
Now  draw  the  floor  lines  across  the  sheet  as  shown  on  the  above  mentioned  plates.  They  should  be  inked 
to  prevent  their  being  erased  when  changes  are  made  in  the  pencil  drawing.  Some  draftsmen  like  to 
use  red  ink  for  this,  as  the  floor  levels  are  easily  found  among  the  other  lines.  If  the  elevation  is  to  be 
symmetrical,  draw  the  center  line  or  lines  next  and  ink  them. 

Now  the  grade  line  representing  the  surface  of  the  ground  is  drawn  at  the  desired  distance  from  the 
first  floor  line.  Sometimes  both  the  natural  and  finished  grades  arc  shown,  the  latter  by  a  solid  line 
and  the  former  by  a  dotted  one.     Both  of  these  should  then  be  plainly  noted  as  on  Plates  24  to  27. 

A  temporary  vertical  wall  section  should  now  be  drawn  at  one  side  of  the  sheet  extending  from  the 
footing  up  through  the  cornice.  It  should  contain  the  vertical  section  of  a  typical  window  in  each 
story,  sections  through  the  floors,  and  a  typical  cornice  section.  This  need  not  be  drawn  in  detail  here 
but  just  complete  enough  to  assist  in  drawing  the  elevation. 

Next  draw  the  center  lines  of  windows  and  doors  very  lightly  and  draw  in  the  windows  and  doors 
as  desired.     After  this  is  done  the>-  may  be  placed  on  the  plans. 

Any  other  features,  such  as  porches,  hoods,  bays,  dormers,  etc.,  should  now  be  drawn  on  the  eleva- 
tions and  plans. 

If  the  stairway  is  next  to  an  outside  wafl  it  is  often  shown  by  dotted  lines  on  that  ekn'ation  to  which 
it  is  adjacent.  This  is  of  particular  value  where  windows  occur  on  the  stair  or  landing  as  it  gives  a  definite 
means  of  locating  them  vertically.     See  Plate  37. 

On  the  elevation  of  a  frame  house  the  boards  are  indicated  by  fine  lines  and  on  a  brick  house  the 
horizontal  brick  joints  are  sometimes  similarly  shown.  This  lining  is  usually  shown  on  just  enough  of 
the  elevation  to  make  clear  of  what  the  wall  is  built.  Stone  joints  are  indicated  in  a  like  manner.  When 
the  drawing  is  inked  the  joints  are  often  shown  in  dikited  ink  which  differentiates  them  from  the  other 
ones  as  explained  under  the  subject  of  Reproduction  of  Working  Drawitigs. 


SO 


ARCmiECTUR.VL  DRAWING 


Where  ornament  occurs  on  the  elevation  it  is  often  omitted  from  the  scale  drawings  and  its  location 
shown  by  merely  its  outline  or  by  a  note,  see  Plate  43,  or  else  onl)-  a  small  ])ortion  is  indicated  and  its 
continuation  or  repetition  is  noted. 

When  some  exterior  walls  can  not  be  described  on  the  front,  rear  or  side  elevations  (such  as  certain 
court  walls),  they  must  be  drawn  separately  and  given  an  ex])lanatory  title. 

In  all  of  this  elevation  drawing  the  perspective  effect  or  actual  appearance  of  the  resulting  structure 
must  be  kept  in  mind  as  this  will  often  \ary  materially  from  the  appearance  of  the  projection  drawing. 
See  article  on  Perspective  and  Plate  9. 

Scale  Details. — After  the  plans  and  elevations  are  well  worked  up  the  draftsman  must  make  the 
scale  details.  These  are  detail  plans,  elevations  and  sections  drawn  at  a  scale  of  l^",  y^" ,  1 1^"  or  3"  = 
i'  —  o"  according  to  the  amount  of  definition  to  be  shown.  They  arc  used  for  conditions  where  small 
scale  drawings  will  not  sulTue  and  where  full-size  details  are  not  necessary.  See  Plates  28  to  30  and 
36  to  38. 

Dimensioning. — After  the  drawings  have  been  made,  the  sizes  of  the  various  features  and  their 
location  in  the  building  must  be  definitely  given  by  dimensions. 

First  and  foremost,  these  dimensions  must  be  made  clearly  and  so  that  they  can  not  be  read  incor- 
rectly. Too  much  emphasis  can  not  be  laid  on  this  statement.  The  figures  given  in  the  article  on 
lettering  are  the  most  legible  and  best  for  use  on  working  drawings.  The  accompanying  drawings  show- 
how  the  dimension  lines  should  be  made.  The  dimension  in  any  case  means  the  distance  from  arrow 
point  to  arrow  point,  so  care  must  be  exercised  that  these  arrow  points  be  located  in  exactly  the  right  place. 

When  possible,  keep  dimensions  off  the  object.  Thus  on  Plate  22  the  arrow  points  often  touch  two 
lines  extending  out  from  the  plan.  These  are  called  extension  lines  or  reference  lines  and  are  made  very 
lightly.  Extension  lines  are  drawn  through  the  centers  of  windows,  doors,  etc. ,  for  the  purpose  of  locating 
them  on  the  plan. 

No  line  of  the  drawing  and  no  center  line  should  ever  be  used  as  a  dimension  line. 

Dimensions  should  read  from  the  left  toward  the  right  and  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top  of  the 
drawing.  In  any  case  they  should  read  with  the  dimension  lines,  not  across  them.  This  is  illustrated 
on  the  Cochran  plans. 

Dimensions  should  always  be  given  to  the  face  of  masonry  walls,  to  the  outside  of  studs  in  outer 
frame  walls,  to  the  center  lines  of  frame  partitions,  to  the  center  line  of  beams,  girders  and  columns  and 
to  the  center  line  of  door  and  window  openings.  In  any  case  they  must  be  given  so  as  to  best  aid  the 
workman  who  is  doing  the  building.  Give  them  also  in  such  a  way  that  variation  in  stock  sizes  of 
material  will  not  affect  the  result. 

In  addition  to  the  dimensions  to  centers  of  openings  in  masonry  walls,  the  width  of  the  opening 
should  be  given.     This  is  necessary  in  getting  out  stone  sills,  steel  lintels,  etc. 

Whenever  possible,  keep  dimensions  off  of  sectioned  surfaces. 


Si 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


A  careful  study  of  the  accompanying  drawings  will  show  the  best  ways  of  indicating  dimensions 
under  various  circumstances.  Information  concerning  the  dimensioning  of  stairways,  fireplaces,  etc.,  is 
given  with  the  details  of  those  features. 

It  is  very  easy  to  spoil  a  good  drawing  by  poorh-  made  dimensions  so  the  form  of  the  figures  and  the 
shape  and  location  of  the  arrow  points  should  be  carefully  watched. 

Notice  on  Plate  22  and  Plate  32  how  the  detail  dimensions  are  given  on  one  line,  the  larger  dimen- 
sions on  a  line  outside  the  detail  dimensions  and  the  over-all  dimensions  are  outside  of  them  all  whenever 
possible. 

In  general,  the  vertical  dimensions  are  given  on  the  elevations  and  vertical  sections  and  the  hori- 
zontal dimensions  on  the  plans.     Verify  this  by  consulting  the  plates. 

The  plans,  elevations  and  sections  on  Plates  21  to  30  give  the  student  a  comprehensive  idea  as  to 
the  dramngs  necessary  for  a  complete  graphic  description  of  the  average  residence. 

Of  course  for  a  cheap  house  where  a  great  deal  of  stock  material  is  to  be  used,  the  drawings  might 
be  much  more  simple,  but  for  good  work,  each  feature  should  be  carefully  presented. 

Notice  the  scale  at  which  the  drawings  are  made  and  the  amount  of  detail  shown  on  each. 

Reproduction  of  Working  Drawings. — After  the  building  is  drawn  up,  a  number  of  sets  of  the 
drawings  must  be  made  to  supph'  each  of  the  contractors  with  a  copy  and  to  replace  those  worn  out  on 
the  job.  These  are  made  by  placing  a  sheet  of  transparent  tracing  cloth  over  the  pencil  drawing  and 
tracing  all  lines,  notes,  dimensions,  etc.,  on  the  cloth  in  black  drawing  ink.  This  tracing  is  then  placed  in 
a  frame  over  a  white  sensitized  paper  called  blueprint  paper  and  exposed  to  the  sun  or  an  artificial  light. 
The  light  causes  a  chemical  change  in  the  emulsion  on  the  paper  which,  immersed  in  water,  causes  the 
paper  to  turn  a  deep  blue  wherever  the  light  has  reached  it.  The  black  ink  lines  prevent  the  light  from 
reaching  the  emulsion  and  so  all  lines,  notes,  etc.,  develop  out  white  in  contrast  with  the  blue  background 
making  a  very  legible  blueprint.  After  the  print  is  washed  it  may  be  exposed  to  the  light  without  causing 
any  further  chemical  change. 

This  method  of  reproduction  is  both  cheap  and  practical  for  working  drawings.  Jn  all  cities  and 
towns  of  any  size  may  be  found  blueprinting  establishments,  and  the  architect  can  have  this  work  done 
more  cheaply  than  he  can  do  it  himself. 

Sometimes  blueprints  are  made  directly  from  pencil  drawings  on  tracing  paper  but  they  are  not  so 
sharp  and  brilliant  as  those  made  from  the  cloth  tracings. 

When  the  draftsman  desires  some  of  the  lines  of  the  blueprint  to  show  rather  dimly,  he  traces  them 
in  diluted  black  ink.  'i'his  allows  some  light  to  tiller  through  and  jjroduces  bluish  lini's  which  are  not 
so  prominent  on  the  print  as  the  white  lines.  These  are  valuable  in  showing  brick  jointing,  section 
lining,  etc. 


52 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Drawings  of  Existing  Buildings.-  Wlu-n  it  is  found  necessary  to  make  alterations  or  additions  to  an 
existing  building,  llic  drullsman  hnds  himself  in  need  of  a  graphic  record  of  the  structure  as  it  stands. 
If  the  original  drawings  of  the  building  are  not  available,  it  is  necessary  that  measurements  be  made  and 
recorded  in  some  quick  and  accurate  manner  so  that  workable  plans,  elevations,  etc.,  may  be  drawn 
from  them.  The  amount  of  detail  and  care  with  which  this  record  must  be  made  will  l)e  determined 
entirely  by  the  new  work  to  be  done  and  will  wary  with  every  case. 

The  first  record  is  made  on  coordinate  paper.  This  pa])er  is  ruled  vertically  and  horizontally  with 
lines  1^  inth  apart  forming  !«  inch  squares.  Every  eighth  line  is  heavier  than  the  other  seven,  thus 
forming  i  inch  squares  also.  As  the  sketches  are  usually  made  at  a  scale  of  Js"  =  i'  —  o",  the  plans, 
elevations,  etc.,  may  be  easily  drawn  on  this  paper  in  good  proportion,  for  each  small  s[)acc  represents 
one  foot  at  this  scale.  The  paper  should  be  fastened  to  a  piece  of  cardboard  or  other  lightweight  board 
so  that  it  may  be  easily  carried  and  marked  on.  A  6  foot  folding  rule  and  a  steel  tape  will  be  needed 
for  making  the  measurements. 

Care  should  be  exercised  to  make  the  notes  complete  at  first,  for  if  anything  is  omitted,  much  time 
may  be  wasted  in  repeated  trips  to  the  building  for  the  missing  information. 

P'irst,  the  floor  plans  should  be  measured  and  recorded.  These  should  show  all  principle  dimensions 
of  rooms,  the  location  of  stairways  with  the  number  and  dimensions  of  the  risers  and  treads;  then  the 
thickness  and  material  of  all  walls,  the  width,  character  and  location  of  all  wall  openings  and  then  any- 
other  features  such  as  heating  and  plumbing  equipment,  etc.,  are  recorded.  In  connection  with  the 
plans,  any  horizontal  sections,  such  as  window  jambs,  etc.,  may  be  detailed  as  needed.  As  a  check  to 
the  numerous  smaller  dimensions  of  the  plan,  over-all  measurements  should  be  taken.  They  may  be 
secured  outside  the  building  or  on  a  straight  line  through  the  inside  where  doors  are  conveniently  located. 

In  recording  the  vertical  dimensions,  the  story  heights  should  be  secured  first.  This  may  be  done 
by  dropping  the  tape  down  through  a  stair  well  where  the  building  is  such  as  to  make  this  possible. 
They  may  be  measured  also  on  the  outside  wall  from  sUl  to  sill  of  the  windows  and  then  adding  the  sill-to- 
floor  dimensions  of  the  lower  story  and  subtracting  corresponding  dimension  of  the  upper  story.  The 
height  and  detail  of  belt  courses,  cornice,  etc.,  must  then  be  secured.  At  least  one  of  each  type  of 
window  and  door  openings  should  be  shown  in  detail  on  these  sketches.  Where  it  is  impossible  to 
measure  outside  heights  directly,  the  number  of  brick  courses  or  of  siding  boards  may  be  counted  and, 
by  measuring  these  features  where  they  are  within  reach,  the  inaccessible  dimensions  may  be  arrived  at. 
Another  method  of  obtaining  such  dimensions  is  by  taking  photographs  of  the  elevations,  preparing  a 
scale  from  known  dimensions  on  the  picture  and  using  this  to  measure  those  parts  that  are  out  of  reach. 
Roof  slopes,  chimney  heights,  etc.,  may  also  be  found  if  the  pictures  have  been  taken  from  the  proper 
station  points.     The  photographic  record  will  be  found  of  much  value  in  the  subsequent  work. 


S3 


P  LATE    2i 


PLATE    22. 


PLATE    23 


PLATE   24 


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PLATE    2.') 


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PLATE    26 


PLATE    27 


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PLATE    28 


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DfcTAIL  •  PARJ'OF-  '  EA5T  -  ELEVATION- 


PLATE    29 


PLATE    50 


PLATE    31 


ARrTIITF.rTrRAT,  DRAWING 


Contour  Map  or  Site  Plan.— When  it  is  necessary  to  design  a  building  for  a  site  that  is  not  level, 
the  arcliilcTt  must  know  just  liow  high  each  point  is  above  the  lowest  part  of  the  site.  This  information 
is  obtained  b)-  tlie  surveyor  and  presented  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  shown  on  Plate  31,  which  without 
the  building,  is  called  a  contour  map. 

By  wa\'  of  an  explanation  of  this  map,  imagine  a  flooded  condition  of  the  neighborhood  in  which  the 
water  is  gradually  rising.  Tiie  pait  of  the  lot  first  covered  by  the  water  would  be  that  at  the  corner  of 
Salem  .Avenue  and  North  Harvard  Boulevard.  Here  the  shore  line  would  follow  the  dotted  line 
figured  101.  .After  the  water  had  risen  4  feet  more  the  shore  line  would  follow  the  dotted  line  105  and 
the  water  would  ha\  e  almost  reached  the  location  of  the  building.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  each  dotted 
line  represents  j^oints  of  the  same  level  across  the  lot. 

Notice  on  the  curb  near  the  street  intersection  the  bench  mark  which  is  figured  100.  This  is  always 
established  on  some  fixed  object  and  the  various  levels  measured  from  it  by  means  of  an  instrument 
called  a  surveyor's  level. 

Notice  now  the  note  on  the  {)lan  of  the  building  which  says  that  the  basement  floor  elevation  is 
lOn.O.  This  means  that  the  basement  floor  is  to  be  5'  —  o"  above  the  bench  mark.  Thus  all  levels  of 
the  building  and  site  arc  measured  from  this  fixed  elevation. 

The  contour  map  is  valuable  in  that  it  tells  the  architect  (after  he  has  located  the  building  upon  it) 
just  how  far  below-  the  first  floor  the  ground  is  at  any  point  around  the  building.  This  information  is 
necessary  in  the  placing  of  doorways,  windows,  steps,  etc.,  in  the  outside  wall  at  the  ground  level.  It 
is  also  useful  in  determining  the  amount  of  excavating  which  must  be  done  for  the  basement,  and  the 
fill  for  grading  outside,  when  the  building  has  been  completed. 

The  given  site  plan  shows  also  the  location  of  the  existing  trees  and  their  approximate  size.  They 
are  indicated  by  the  spots  on  the  drawing  and  are  sometimes  noted  as  to  kind  and  size. 

Location  and  depth  of  sewers  and  location  of  the  water  main  are  also  shown. 

The  points  of  the  compass  are  given  on  the  map  when  they  are  needed. 

The  lines  showing  the  original  contour  of  the  lot  are  shown  on  this  map  by  dotted  lines  and  the 
future  or  proposed  grade  is  shown  by  solid  freehand  lines. 

Dimensions  of  the  lot  and  location  of  the  building  on  it  are  also  given. 


65 


PLATE    52 


ARCHITECTURAL   DRAWING 


An  Irregular  Plan. — The  opposite  plan  of  the  Grace  Methodist  Church  which  is  called  a  general 
floor  plan,  has  been  given  to  illustrate  the  method  of  laying  out  an  irregular  building  and  to  show  the 
indication  of  stone,  brick,  structural  tile  and  wood  on  a  plan. 

It  should  be  noticed  first  that  ever}thing  has  been  located  from  the  central  point  near  the  change 
in  direction  of  the  plan  and  that  all  main  dimensions  are  given  to  center  lines  radiating  from  this  point. 

Now  identify  the  walls  that  are  entirely  of  brick,  then  those  of  stone  with  brick  backing  and  then 
the  tile  and  the  frame  walls.     Check  them  with  the  schedule  of  material  on  Plate  19. 

Nothing  can  or  need  be  shown  in  detail  at  this  small  scale,  each  door,  window,  etc.,  being  repre- 
sented by  a  symbol  and  detailed  at  a  larger  scale  on  other  drawings. 

The  large  letters  in  the  circles  are  not  a  part  of  the  drawing  but  will  be  referred  to  when  studying 
Plate  34. 


67 


PLATE    33 


O 


ARCHITECTURAI.  DRAWING 


Plan  of  Concrete  and  Tile  Floor  Systems. — Plate  33  illustrates  the  draftsman's  method  of  present- 
ing the  structural  plan  in  the  main  iloor  of  the  church. 

The  Sun(ia\-  School  wing  has  floors  of  concrete  slabs  while  the  auditorium  floor  is  a  combination 
system  made  up  of  a  large  number  of  concrete  joist  between  which  are  fillers  of  hollow  structural  tile 
block,  the  latter  system  being  used  for  the  longer  spans. 

In  drawing  a  plan  for  the  concrete  slab  floor,  notice  that  the  bearing  walls  below  are  shown  by  dotted 
lines  and  the  outlines  of  the  slabs  are  solid  lines.  Then  the  slab  thickness  and  the  size,  section  and  spac- 
ing of  the  steel  reinforcing  rods  are  noted  on  each  slab.  Where  the  slab  is  supported  by  a  beam,  the 
beam  is  shown  dotted  on  the  i)lan  and  its  number  is  noted  B-8,  B-.9,  etc. 

The  figures  in  the  small  rectangles  give  the  elevation  of  the  slab  top  above  the  bench  mark  on  the 
curb  at  the  street  intersection.  These  elevations  are  noted  at  all  points  of  the  plan,  for  the  top  of  each 
slab  must  come  exactly  to  the  proper  level. 

The  plan  of  the  combination  floor  system  shows  the  supporting  walls  and  beams  dotted  as  before 
and  each  concrete  joist  of  the  floor  indicated  by  solid  lines. 

Notice  that  the  center  part  of  the  main  floor  is  made  up  of  71  units  as  shown  in  the  detailed  section 
above  the  plan  on  this  plate,  each  unit  having  a  tile  filler  12  inches  wide  and  a  concrete  joist  4  inches  wide. 
The  note  (6"  Tile  —  2"  Cone.)  means  tile  6  inches  in  depth  with  2  inches  of  concrete  on  top  of  it  as  shown 
in  the  detail  marked  J-A,  J-B. 

On  this  plate  is  given  also  a  t\pical  schedule  or  list  of  the  size  of  the  concrete  girders,  beams  and 
joist,  and  a  description  of  the  steel  reinforcement  in  each. 


69 


PLATE   34 


0/ZAO&-  £i..  IfZ-S 


hkUM  ■  AVE  ■  ELEVATION  ■  OF  -  J  -J  •  WIMC- 

(^JrilS     ELEVATION     I5   TAKfN    A5   JHOUGH    THE;     OOJt ly/fcR^ WtRfc     JTANDmCr    A-J    POSITION   @  A5   JHOWN 
OM    Tut    I^IRST    [^LOOR^PLAM   AND    LOOI^nO-   IM    THE:    DlRecTIOM    iMDICATfcD  5Y  "I>l fc  AiVROW.  1 


— ■  ~  "      ;         I      A£*..  toe- 


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[[hiJ    tLtVATION    15   JAKPN   f-RpM  POilT'OM  ®  A3    5HOWN   ON  "  GR/vCL      MCTHODFiT       ChURgH 

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PLATE     35 


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PLATE    36 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Plate  34  will  jj;ivo  an  idea  as  to  the  i)resenlati()n  of  tiie  elexation  of  a  building  whose  walls  are  built 
of  roughly-faced  stone  laid  uj)  in  what  is  known  as  rock  face  broken  ashlar.  On  an  elevation  showing 
this  kind  of  masonry,  only  enough  of  the  stone  joints  arc  drawn  to  show  the  approximate  size  of  the 
stones  and  about  how  they  are  to  be  laid  up.  Where  cut  stone  is  used  as  around  the  windows  and  doors, 
each  stone  should  be  drawn. 

Every  opening  has  a  number,  and  where  the  feature  in  the  opening  is  rather  complicated,  as  the 
main  door  6V)  or  the  tracery  in  the  tower,  it  may  be  omitted  from  the  small  scale  elevation  entirely  but 
shown  on  the  larger  scale  details. 

A  note  on  the  plate  explains  how  the  elevations  there  shown  are  taken. 

The  two  ends  of  the  Sunday  School  wing  and  the  bay  over  the  entrance  door  show  the  manner  of 
indicating  stucco  walls  with  imitation  half-timber  construction. 

Notice  on  these  drawings  that  the  elevations  of  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  walls  arc  noted  as  are 
also  those  of  the  finished  grade  and  the  floor  levels.  These  elevations  as  well  as  those  on  the  contour 
map  are  measured  from  the  bench  mark  on  the  curb  stone. 

On  Plate  36  is  a  t}pical  scale  detail  of  the  interior  of  the  church  auditorium.  Here  the  draftsman 
has  taken  three  drawings  and  so  combined  them  as  to  save  space  and,  at  the  same  time,  show  the  differ- 
ent views  of  each  feature  in  close  proximity. 

The  center  part  of  the  drawing  gives  a  transverse  section  through  the  auditorium  taken  near  and 
looking  toward  the  south  entrance  doors.  The  right  half  of  this  shows  in  detail  the  plaster  and  wood 
finish  on  the  roof  trusses,  the  ornamental  balcony  rail  and  plaster  balcony  ornament.  It  also  gives  in 
more  detail  the  wall  and  floor  construction  and  the  roof  of  the  side  aisles.  The  structural  or  working 
part  of  the  roof  truss  is  shown  to  the  left  of  the  center  line  as  is  also  the  structural  detail  of  the  roof  itself, 
thus  showing  the  relation  between  structure  and  finish. 

At  the  extreme  left  of  the  sheet  is  a  section  through  the  center  of  the  balcony  over  the  narthex 
(check  with  Plate  32)  and  through  a  part  of  the  south  or  front  wall  of  the  church.  This  drawing  is 
made  to  show  in  detail  the  construction  of  the  balcony  and  the  elevation  of  the  west  wall  in  the  narthex. 
It  also  details  the  arches  at  the  side  aisles. 

Several  such  drawings  are  necessary  for  the  description  of  a  building  so  complex  as  this  one. 

When  the  building  is  so  large  as  to  necessitate  the  drawing  of  the  elevations  at  a  small  scale  as 
shown  on  Plate  34,  it  then  becomes  necessary  to  draw  portions  of  the  ele\'ation  at  a  larger  scale  so  as  to 
describe  its  parts  adequately.  Plate  37  gives  a  scale  detail  describing  a  part  of  the  south  wall  of  the 
church.  This  shows  accurately  the  shape,  size  and  location  of  all  features  of  this  part  of  the  wall.  It 
locates  vertically  all  windows,  doors  and  other  openings.  The  cut  stone  parts  are  accurately  drawn  and 
dimensioned  as  shown,  all  cut  stone  joints  being  located.  The  approximate  size  of  the  stones  and  gen- 
eral character  of  the  ashlar  walls  is  here  indicated  in  a  manner  easily  distinguished  from  the  cut  stone 
work. 

Notice  that  vertical  dimensions  are  given  from  the  main  floor  level  and  the  elevation  of  this  floor 
(II8.0)  is  noted.  Attention  is  called  also  to  the  method  of  dimensioning  the  batter  or  slope  of  the  tower 
wall. 

The  tower  stair,  which  is  built  against  this  wall,  is  indicated  b\-  dotted  lines  and  the  risers  are 
numbered  for  convenience  in  reading  the  drawing. 

Enough  scale  details  of  this  kind  are  drawn  to  describe  all  of  the  outside  walls. 


73 


PLATE    37 


,C/  yV£A7rtCli,  VAHb 


Dr^TAILJ 
or- 

GRACE:  -Methodist  -  Church  y 

-Dayton  -  Ohio- 


Cur  jro/vG:  -^ 


DfcTAiL  Of  haryarp  Boulevard  r-ACADt 


PLATE    38 


DETAIL5 

Grace:  -  M£Thodi5T  -  Chvrch 

•5alc;m  •  Avtnvt-  4^ •  Haryarp -BouLEVARp ■ 
-Dayton  -  Ohio- 

Q  Hetirann  fro/n  ffie  p/anj  o/*  J 

JC/ltNCK.  eriritllAMS  ■  AUCMrS 

£>A  Y  TO/i     .  -  ■       O///  O 


[THIJ  JtCTION  13  TAKfcN  THRy  THE;  TOWDR_ 
ON  THt  CtNTfclV.  LINE:  A-3  THOUOtt  THt  OB- 
3fcRYER_    WCRC    LOOK.ING-    WtJT. 

THt    ORIGINAL    DR^Wmoj     CONTAIN    IN  ADDITION 
TO   Tttli    ONE:    A   ifcCTION    THRJ/   THE:  CE;NTtR_ 
Oh    THE:   TOWErR^  AND    LOOKJNO    INORJH. 
THE:3t    TWO    TOWE:R_  JE:CTION3    TOGtTHtR- 
■WITH    THt    DE:TAIL    tLErVATlONJ    Arf-ORP  A 
COMPLtrTE:    DtJCRJPTlON    OF-    THE:     iOV/Trt 
AND    E:A5T   WALLJ     OIVINO-    LOCATION    AND 
DfcPTH  Of-    CUT   JTONt    COURjtJ    AND  A3HLAR, 
WALL3     AND     JHOWING-   THE:    POSITION    OP- 
5RICK,  £>ACtCIN&  IN    THE:     WALLS. 
THE:    r-LOOB_  CONSTRycTlON      ALSO    13  3HOW/N 
AND     E:LE:VATION5     OF-    THE:     INSIDE:    WALLJ 
AND    Of-    JTAIRJ     E:TC. 

r-OR^  PRACTICE:      IN    RtADING     THE:  DRAWINGS 
CME:C!t.    LOCATION     or  OOORJ ,  3TAIRJ    E:TC. 
WITH    THOJE:    SHOWN    ON    THE:    AUDITORJUM 
FLOOFCPLAN    AND    CHCCK^    hLOOR^  CONiTRyCT- 
lON     WITH    THE:     ni^T    TLOOR^  E-RAMINO  PLAN. 


SINCE:    THIS    DRAWING    13    0^   NE:CE:33ITY 
MUCH    3MALLE:R^THAN     THE:    ARPHlTErCTJ 
DC:TAIL     IT   13    IMPOSSIBLE:    TO   SHOW 
THE:    MOULDINGS,    IRpN    BALUSTRADE: 
t:TC.    A3   ACCURATE:LY    A3    ON    THE: 
HALh    INCH    SCALE:    WORK-ING  DRAWING. 

H/LL    SIZE:    DE:TAILS     HAVE:  BE:E:N- 
MADt!     rOR_  ALL    Of-  THE:    MOULD- 
INGS    AND    POR_THE:     ORtlAMEzNTAL 
I  R£>N    WORJ;^ . 

THIS    ME:THOD    Oh   DE:TAILING-   HAS 
BttN     CARiUE:D    OUT     OVE:R_THE: 
ErNTlRJ:    BUILDING-    MAKINO  THE 
DRAWINGS     VtRy    COMPLCTt-    AND 
tASILY    INTE:RPRtTtD    BY   THE: 
BUILDE:R^.  ]■ 


COP/9fi/?_    i^S'o^ 


2-  Z'-*  3    D/AO-Oflf^M.t.y' 


Section  TMRy  Main  Tower_ 
LOOICING  We^t 


PLATE   59 


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ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


The  lot  upon  which  the  C'levekmd  Discount  Buildin-,'  Comjiany's  building  is  located  is  underlaid 
for  some  distance  with  earth  of  such  a  nature  thai  it  will  not  support  the  excessive  weight  of  a  building 
of  this  size.  The  depth  to  which  this  soft  earth  extends  is  so  great  as  to  make  it  impractical  to  carry 
the  foundation  walls  down  to  the  solid  footing  required.  When  such  a  condition  is  met  it  is  necessary 
to  provide  some  kind  of  supports  down  through  the  soft  material  to  the  solid  rock  or  other  good  footing. 
These  supports  are  called  piles  and  are  long  wood  or  concrete  posts.  When  concrete  piles  are  used,  a 
hollow  sheet  steel  form  is  dri\-en  down  as  far  as  necessary  and  then  filled  with  concrete.  Concrete 
footings  are  next  lormccl  on  lop  of  the  piling  and  the  building  rests  on  these  footings. 

It  is  necessar)'  that  each  pile  be  located  as  accurately  as  possible  and  for  this  purpose  a  piling  plan 
is  made  as  suggested  on  Plate  39. 

Notice  that  the  elevation  of  the  top  of  the  driven  i)iling  is  marked  on  cacn  footing.  Thus  the 
contractor  who  drives  the  piles  knows  just  where  to  fmish  ofT  the  top  of  each  pile.  The  footing  sections, 
see  Type-A  and  Type-B,  show  how  the  concrete  footings  are  built  on  toy)  of  the  piling.  The  steel  rein- 
forcing rods  and  the  steel  girders  are  shown  by  solid  black  lines. 

When  there  are  a  number  of  footings  of  each  size  and  kind,  they  may  be  given  type  numbers  or 
letters  as  in  this  case  and  only  one  of  each  type  described  in  detail. 

On  Plate  43  is  a  topical  small  scale  elevation  and  section  of  a  very  large  building.  The  actual 
elevations  of  this  structure  are  much  larger  than  those  of  the  Grace  Methodist  Church  and  consequently 
must  be  shown  at  a  smaller  scale  so  that  the  sheets  may  not  become  too  large  to  handle.  This  makes  it 
impractical  to  show  so  much  detail  and  such  drawings  are  therefore  useful  only  in  suggesting  the  eleva- 
tion as  a  whole  by  simple  lines  and  in  giving  the  main  vertical  dimensions. 

The  transverse  section.shows  the  banking  quarters  on  the  first  floor  and  the  rental  space  and  light 
court  above. 

Parts  of  the  elevations  are  then  detailed  at  a  larger  scale  similar  to  that  of  the  church  on  Plate  37. 

Notice  that  the  ornamental  metal  work  and  terra  cotta  is  indicated  in  the  simplest  possible  manner 
and  sometimes  only  noted. 

Plate  44  gives  one  of  a  number  of  large  scale  details  showing  the  relation  of  the  walls,  floors,  and 
ornament  to  the  structural  members.     It  is  explained  by  the  note  on  the  plate. 

The  banking  quarters,  which  are  the  most  important  part  of  the  building,  are  elaboratel\-  fmished, 
making  necessary  a  great  many  details  of  this  part.  One  of  these  details  is  given  on  Plate  45  and  is 
tjpical  of  such  interior  elevations.  On  the  first  floor  plan  of  Plate  40  find  the  point  at  which  this  detail 
was  taken,  and  compare  column  numbers,  stairs,  etc. 


77 


PLATE  40 


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PLATE  43 


OFFICE      BUILDING- 
^OI^,  TH-fc 

CLEVELAND   DISCOUNT  BUILDINO  CO. 

CLEVELAND     -     OH  lO 


TRANiVER.5E     5ECTION  II 

\jSco/e    of  or/^tna/  cfrat*'//7o\ 


PLATE    44 


[tH\S    is    ONfc  Of-  JtVErRAL   VfcRTICAL   StC- 
TIONJ    TAK^N    AT   3UCM    POINT3    ARpUND 
THe    BUILDING-   AS    TO   DfciCRiBt     COM- 
PLETELY    THE:     RELATION     £.ErTWEtN  THt 
5TErtL     rRAMe     AND    THt   BRJCK.     AND 
TtRRA-COTTA    WALLS    AT  THOSt   POINTS. 
IT    SHOWS    Tlit    MEMBtR^   OE  THt    PRAMt 
IN    SECTION     OR,  ELEVATION    AND   THE; 
MANNER^  Of-  BUILDINO-    THE:    MASONRY 
WPON     THE:    OIBDErR^    AND   LINTtL    5UP- 
PORJ3. 

IT  ALSO  ILLUSTRA-TErJ  CLtARLY  THE 
METHOD  Of-  5ECUR1NO-  THE  ARCHI- 
TErCTUR.AL  TERRA -COTTA;  TO  THEr 
STErCL       f^RAMt:  . 

IN     SOME:      PLACE:5.     iUCH   A5   AT    THC 
CORNICE       AND    AT     THE    St:VENTtENTH 
STORY      6ALCONY,     3PE:CIAL     OVfcIV_- 
HANOING-      STE:£L      5UPPORJJ     AR^ 
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TO    THE:      MAIN      M^A-MfcWORJC      BUT 
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ARCHITfcCTi      IlRA-WmG-5. 
THt     BRAf-TSMAN      MUST     HOWtVfcR_ 
BEAR.      THEM      IN     MIND     50    THAT  THEY 
MAY      BE     WORJCED     OUT     A5     HtR£: 
JUG-Q-E^TCD. 

THE:      ORJOINAL     OE    THIS      itCTION 
"C-C"    CONTAINS     MANY      MOR_E     NOTfcS 
AND     DIMENSIONS      THAN     ARt     HERf: 
SHOWN,  ONLY  THE    MOR_Er     IMPORTANT 
0Nt3     BtINO-     GIVEN     ON    THIS    DRAWING.] 


OFFICE      BUILDING- 

P-OR_  THrr 

CLEVELAND  DISCOUNT  BUILDING  CO. 

CLtVELAND      -     OHIO 


_  ^mefrotvn    from    f/it  />/onj   o/\ 


VERTICAL   SECTION    ON    LINE    C-C' 


\Jca/e  of  or/'^inaf  tfrot*^'/?^^ 


PLATE  45 


PLATE    46 


f-  O  1-        -^ 
t/,  to    • 

to  to  i_  -i 
1-  X  1-  5; 

°      dJ 

o  I—  »o 

•LI  O,       -liJ 
|_  it_  O  lO  h- 


IRAMING     Ol    WOODEN    BUILDINGS 


ARTICLE  VI 

DETAIL  DRAWINGS 

Plates  46  to  6 1 

Architectural  details  are  those  drawings  made  at  a  larger  scale  than  the  i)lans  and  elevations  to 
describe  accurately  the  \arious  methods  of  construction  and  ihe  mouldings  and  ornamentation  of  the 
building. 

The  scale  of  details  varies  according  to  the  necessity  of  the  case,  •''4"  =  1'  —  o"  being  a  good  size 
lor  general  detailing  such  as  exterior  elevations  and  wall  sections  while  interior  elevations  are  often  made 
at  a  scale  of  I2"  =  i'  —  o".  Where  absolute  accuracy  is  required,  such  as  for  the  fine  mouldings  of  a 
mantel,  full-size  details  are  necessary. 

The  smaller  scale  details  are  usually  included  in  the  general  drawings  while  full-size  details  are 
furnished  only  to  the  mechanic  who  is  to  get  out  that  part  of  the  work. 

The  details  of  any  building  consist  principally  of  the  following  drawings . 

First — Vertical  wall  sections  describing  all  horizontal  mouldings  or  belt  courses,  the  sill,  wall  thick- 
ness, method  of  framing  floor  systems  into  walls,  windows,  cornice,  and  roof  at  the  cornice.  The  de- 
tailed plan  or  jamb  sections  are  sometimes  shown  on  this  drawing. 

Second — Details  of  the  exterior  elevations  which  could  not  be  described  adequately  by  the  small 
scale  elevations. 

Third — Detailed  elevations  and  sections  of  the  features  of  the  interior  such  as  doors,  fireplaces, 
stairways,  ornamental  beams,  cornices  and  other  decorative  features. 

Fourth — Parts  of  the  plan  are  detailed  when  necessary. 

After  the  general  drawings  have  been  gotton  out,  the  full-size  details  are  completed,  usually  in  the 
order  in  which  the  building  is  done.  Thus  the  basement  windows  are  almost  always  the  first  full-size 
details  made  for  the  better  class  of  residence  work,  since  these  windows  must  be  built  and  delivered  before 
the  basement  wall  can  be  completed.  The  interior  trim,  stair  finish,  etc.,  are  full  sized  last  for  that  is 
the  last  work  to  be  put  into  the  building. 

There  is  a  great  variety  of  detail  for  each  feature  of  a  building,  but  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  student 
to  study  at  this  time  only  the  standard  methods  of  construction,  and  suggestions  as  to  the  drawing  up 
of  the  principal  details. 

A  careful  study  of  the  detail  drawings  of  the  Cochran  residence,  the  (irace  Methodist  Church  and 
the  Cleveland  ofiTice  building,  so  that  the  student  may  understand  the  reason  for  each  feature  of  the 
detail,  will  be  of  benefit  to  him  in  tlie  production  of  similar  drawings. 

Stock  sizes  of  material,  particularly  hardware,  will  often  have  a  bearing  on  the  design  of  a  detail. 
Attention  is  called  to  this  on  some  of  the  detail  plates. 


8S 


PLATE   47 


htlNOE  AT  TOP 
/"to  iwiING  UP 


n^ 


< 


GIVE  TOTAL  GLA5S 
5IZE  H-ERt  || 
GIVE  WIDTH!  F-IK^T 

THEN  naom 


W 


WHEN   MUNTINa 
ARE  U5ED  MARK. 
■'X)I  VIDEO"  I 


4- 


I^OMETRIC    PICTURI: 

PART  REMOVED  TO  5H0W  C0N5TRyCTI0N 


^ 

PART  ELtVATION 
OP  0UT51DE 


VERTICAL 
SECTION 


•g-  ^H-EATHING- 
3U1LDING  PAPER;- 
^ilDINO 
BLOCIC  AT 
EACH-  STUD 


REEiATE 

EOR^ SCREEN- 

HEAD 

5E:CT10N  "A" 


,      JAM5 

"J         SECTION  & 


^1-  MUMTIN 


R.EBATE 


5ILL 

SECTION  'C 


j^  .  .L 


5TONE  WALL 


r-ffV/EATrtER.^TOP 


UNDER^ilDE  OE^ILL 
KERftD  TO  PR|:VENT 
WARDING 


CHErAP   PRAME: 


:tE  ALJO    SHEET  NO.  1 

PAt  COCHRAM  PJrolDtNCt 


DETAIL   5ECTION5 


GOOD   F-Ri^ME: 


I" 


OCALt      \z  -  l-O 
I  ■  I  ■  I ' H 

3  fy  0  12  mCHti 


BASliMHNr   WINDOW  IN    I  RAMI:  WAIJ, 


PLATE   48 


Mciq.MO  mcK. 

-jl  --^^.^    1  J5RLCIC  AR£H- 
-CAMbtR,  PIfcCt 


A  WIMDOW    HEAD    IN     A   ^RLCK^   WALL     MAY    £>t:    JiUILT     A^ 
JHOWN      AT    ThtE:    LtfT,  WITHt     A    £>RiCIQ_  ARg-H-     tXTfcND- 
INO    tNT[R£:LY     TH-RgUOht    THE    WALL     AND    5UPPORTtD 
AT    P-IR^T    £>Y    THt     CAMB£R_  PItCfc5    WHICH-    AKL"    iUILT 
ONTO    THt    M?^M6.     THI5    ARCH-   Oh  COURSE:   .3HOW5    OUT3IDE: 
THE   WALL.    WHEN    THE    J5E6IGN    CALLS    EOR^  A  STRA'GrHT    LINE 
ACROSS     THE    WINDOW    HEAD,  THE    £.RLC1C  ARfiH    MAY  JiC  JJUILT 
PART    WAY    THROUGH  THE    WALL    SUPPORTING    ONLY    THE  J!)ACKJ.NO 
JJRiCIC  WHILE    THE    EOUR_  INCHE.3   OE  EACE  .DRJ.C1^  \d  CAR34J:D  ON  A 
5TONE    LINTEL   OR_A  5TtEL    ANGLE    M   SHOWN    ABOVE:. 


PERSPECTIVE  PICTURE: 

PART  REMOVED  TO  5H0W  CONSTRUCTION 


r 

TWO  RpWLOCiO 


f-ACfc 
JiRJCI^ 


5TEEL    LlNTfcL-^ 


TWO    OR^  MOKE 
CAMBER^  PIECE5 
/ARE    U5ED    DEPEND-  ' 
ING     ON    WIDTH   OE.,'* 
ARCH    TO  BE  "J 

.SUPPORTED      ,^( 


£>RICIC, 
ARCH- 


ARCti  AND 
LINTEL  HEAD 

^CALt    :|-  =  r-o" 


WH-tRJ:      IT    15    NECEr55A-P0i'     TO     5E:T     THE: 
WINDOW     HEAD      H1GHER_   THAN     THE:    JiOTTOM 
OF-     THE      F-LOOR_     JOIST,     THt       F-LOOR>_    15 
EKAMErD      /V5       5HOWJS      ABOVE:      TO     ALLOW 
SPACE:     IfHTO     WHICH-    THE    SASH     MAY     SWING. 


BASEMENT   WINDOW  IN   BRICIC  WALL 


PLATE   49 


SS:  ALSO  SH-EETS  NO.S  AND 
NO.  9    R^n  COCHRAN   RESIDENCE 
•    rPLATK^aANDZS].  ■ 


iHEATttino- 
FURjy.NG  — 
METAL  LATH 
.STUCCO  — 

EL  ASHING 
ARCmiXAVE 

OUTSIDE  CASINO 

YOKE: 

PARTING  ^TRIP 


WOOD  OI^METAp 
PENDULUM 


ARCH-ITIV.VE 

PULLEY  iTlLE 

I 

PARIIN 


.SILL 


£>ED 
MOULDING, 


PER^PtCTlVE:    VIEW 

WlTht    PART    RtMOVfcD 
TO   5H-OW  CONSTRyCTlON 


5TUCCQ 


MttTINO- 
RAIL 


5ACK,.  BAND 

LEAD    OR, 
CA.3T    IRON 
".3A5H  WEIGHTS 

CASING- 


ARCHITRAVE  — fi^'^J^ 
5TOP 

JAMB 
^ILL 


JTOOL 


APRPN 


PLft^TER^ 


GOOD  PRAMfc  4^  3Am         CfttAP  f-RAME  ^  SAStf 
5TUCCO   WALL  WOOD    5IDINO- 

DETAILED    5ECTIOrS<5 

!-■->  ■    I   ■   I i    I    I  Pi   I    I    I   I 


IZ  INCMfca 


r 


THE  DETAILS    or  THe  DOVbUz    HUN&  WINDOW  VARY  .SLIGHTLY 
IN    DIF-EEHENT    .SECTIONS    OE  THE   COUNTRY  BUT  ARE 
ESSENTIALLY   A5    H-ERE    GIVEN.     THE   DESIGN    OE  MOULD- 
INGS   AND    OE    THE   1N.S1DE   AND  OUTSIDE   TRIM   IS  WORlSfrD 
OUT  TO  SUIT  THE  DESIGN   OE  THE   5U1LDINO. 
BELOW    IS   GIVEN    THE    METHOD    OP  INDICATING  AT  A  SCALE 
-o"  THE  PLAN    OETHC  WII^CW  IN  A  ER^ME  WALL. 


OE  ^ 


HALE  I    HALE   INSIPfc 

tLtVATION 


y///yyyyA- 


^y-y^yyyy> 


^ 


^  SCALE  PLAN 


DOUBLE  HUNG  WINDOW  IN  FRAME  WALL 


PLATE    50 


DETAILErD 


IM  15  OPLI7  INCH  WALL 

6E:CT10IN5 


MtTttOD  OF-  INDICATING  WINDOW 
IN  9" WALL   AT  >5CAL&   ^  =  \'-o" 


IN  ALL  5UT  THE  CHEAPEST  WORjC.  THE  YOKJr  AND  PULLEY  5TILE5  5HOULD  DE  ER^MED  IN- 
TO THE  OUTSIDE  CASINO  AS  HER£:  SHOWN.  THIS  13  DONE  TO  PREVENT  THEM  ERQM 
WARPlNGr  AND  THEREBY  CAUSING  lift  SASH  TO  BIND.  THE  IN5IDE  CASINO  BEING- 
NAILED  OR^SCRErWED  TO  THESE  MEMBER^  ASSISTS  IN  MOLDING  THEM  EIRlylLY  IN 
PLACE  THE  PENDULUM.  WHICH  PREVENTS  THE  SASH  WEIGHTS  ERQM  INTERT-ERLNG.  IS 
OFTEN  OMITTED  IN  CHEAP  ER^MfcS.  THIS  MEMBER.  15  SWUNG  LOOSELY  ER0M  THE  TOP 
ONLY  AND  WHEN  MADE  OE  THIN  WOOD  WILL  SOMETIMES  WAR?.  BECAUSE  OE  THIS  A  STIEE 
COPPER^OP^HEAVILY   GALVANIZED    IRpN   JTRIP    IS    BETTER-.. 


DOUBLE  HUNG  WINDOW  IN  BRIOC  WALL 


PLATE     5f 


CHfcAPLY    DETAILtD 


GOOD    DETAILS    IN 
M?A,M^.    ■ir  5A-5H- 


SHEET  METAL. 
flA5fflNO 


LI 


//,      THIS   SPACh 
-DETERMINED  BY 
ftARgWARE  VS£D 

PREVENTS  H^ME 


HEAD 
MUNTIN 


5TEEL    I  BEAM 
LINTEL 

^TEEL  PLATE 
RIVETED  TO  I  BEAM 

MOULDING  tXTENDET 
TO  OOVER^  .STEEL  ^ 


^XREEN  REBATE 

JAM5 


MEETINGr 
,5TILE5 


6ILL 


MtAD 


,.5PACE  DETERMINED 
HARDWARE;  UStD 


TRANSOM 


MULLION 


DRIP  MOULDINO 

III' 

WEEP  HOUE 


JAMB 


OUT     SWINGING- 


IN    SWINGING- 


DLTAIL   5E:CT10N5   IN   PRAML  WALL 


tc±D 


I 


=t=t= 


61LL 


Ti  MS    OP  CA5fcME:NT5     MU5T   Bt  CARErWLLY    STUDIED 

TO   -j:.,/^.;i    OAT15PACTORY    RE^ULT3    FOR.  IT  15  VtRY  Dlf-MCULT 
TO  MAKfc  TliI5    TYPE  OF"  5A5tt    WEATHERcTIGi-fT.      THIS    15  PARr 

V  TRyE:  Of- THE:    IN-5WINGING    CASEMENTS. 

■:L6    given    are    TYPIcAL    and    may  fit  VARIED 
TO  oUiT    THE   NEED5     OE  THE  CASE  . 

WHEN   THE   0<JT5ID£    WOODWORjC.  15  TO  bh    PAINTED  AND 
THE  INolDE    15  AEINI5HED     HARP  WOOD,  THE   DETAIL  SHOULD 
£)E  MADE  WITH  THIS   IN  MIND.    THE   SOETER^  OUTSIDE    WOOD 
SHOULD  NOT  SHOW  ON  THE    INSIDE   OE  THt  J5UILD1N&  AND 
THE   MORt   E;^PENSIVE:  WOOD    SHOULD    NOT  JbE  USED 

f-OR.  HEAVY    PARTS    OE    ,  ,ME..    THIS    IS  ILLUSTRATED 

BY  THE  DETAIL  AT  THE  RIGHT  AND   IS  TRyE  OE  ALL   ERAME5. 


DETAIL  POI^MCI^WALL 

OUT    5W1MGING 


IN  BRICK,  WALL 


m  M?^ME  WALL  ^//A- 


e: 


SYMBOLS    FOR^  ^  PLAN5 


CASEMENT  WINDOW   DETAILS 


PLATE    52 


r^ 

Ml. 

tl3&C        J 

F      LtD&C         III 

L    LtDCrt;       II 

Mill 

1           LtDO-t          1 

J 

I 

) 

f 

if"  1- woe:       JI 

■tjiTOP     R»IL 


"2- 


Si  BOTTOM   IVilL 


£>A-TT£NtD 


JCRtW  AND  GLUt 


F-I?/VME:  WITH  STOP   ^ET  IN 


L&DGtD  LEDGfcD  ^  BRACtD 

TYPE^    OP   IN5IDE    D00R5     -tt^ 


STUCK.  MOULDED  DOCK. 
JO  CALLtD  5ECAU5E:  OfV 
THE:  MftCfflNE  OK. 
5TlCICt<'0N  NWHICI+ 
Tttfc  MCXJLDING  15  CUT 

JL. 


PATENT 

H0U5E  DOqil?,  |\ 

HANGtRj 


I    I 
oPACfc  DtTERMINtD 
£Y  ttANGE:R,U5ED 


L^v 


hfEAD 


TYPICAL  FOK.HtAD  <^JAMB 


htEAD 


RADIUS  OF-  CURVATURE: 
15    DtTERMINtD  JiY. 
HARpWARJ:    UitD 


-^J\    CURYtD    ErDGE    NOT 
N£CE:35ARy  WITH 
50Mt  TYPtS   or  HINGt 


<:!? 


JAMb 


F-LOOR^yo/sr 


-yU 


poU£>LE  SWINGING  D°-°Il. 


J)°-°Iliri  fRAMt  WALL       IN  A  13  INCH  J3R1CKWALL 


TftE  BATTENED  DOOR.  IJ  THE  TYPE  U5tD  EOR.  LAR.&E  DOOR.J  OE  EACT0R.IE3  ETC.  IT  16  5UILT  UP 
OEDIAGOMAL  MATCHED  BOARPJ   A3  INDICATED.    THE   LEDOEC  AND  THE  LEDGED  AND  BRACED 
iWR.  APE  WED  WHERE  APPEARANCES  ARE  NOT  IMPORTANT  5UCK  AS  IN  CELLAR^  ETC.  THE  PANEL- 
ED D00R.li  fiUILT  UP  OE  HEAVY  PART5  CALLtD  STILEJ  AND  RAIL5  IMTO  WHICH  AR.E  ER^MED  THE 
THIN  PANELS.  iUCH  DOOI^  ARE  SOLID  A.!  AT  THE  LEET  OlttLSE  THE  STILES  AND  RA1L3  ARE  fiUILT  OP  STRIPS 
OLUtD  UP  AND  A  THIN  SHEET  OP  THE  FINISHING  WOOD  0R.VENttR.l5  GLUED  OVER.THE  0UT5IDt  A5  ABOVE . 


POCKtT    MAY  OR, 
MAY  NOT  BE  LINE:D 


A5TRAGAL 


WHtR,t  DOUBLE 
DOORS   MEET 


5LIDING  D°-°ll. 
IN  PRAMtWALL 

^CALE:   Of- ALL  ^CCTION.3 
1^"=  I'-o" 

I    I    I    I    I   I    I    I    I    I    J    I    I   I    L    I    1    I    I    ■    1    I    I    ■    I 

O  3  6  9       l£  INCHES 


DETAILS    OF   IN5IDE  DOOR5 


PLATE    53 


CHEAP     PRAMfc  5TEEL  LINTEL 

SUPPORTS 
^ACt  £.RJCt«~. 
^CRftN    R£5;SfE 


5TEtL  LINTEIL- 
XitaONED  TO  fARKf, 
"~-~;^THE  ENTIRE  WALL' 
/    AT  OPEMINO    "'""' 


TYPICAL  POR. 
HEAD  (^  JAM5 


50LID 
GLA53 


TRAN50M  3AR. 


SOLID 


uM ^1, 


DETAIL'^  f RAM E  WALL 

V/ITH  TRAN50M 


51  LL    SECTION 
IN  £)RICI^ WALL      DETAIL  ^^  HOWELL 4-  Th^M A5 

ARCHlTrrCT^ 
■-    "  CLfcVtLA-ND      OHIO 


DETAILS   OF  OUTSIDE  DOORS 


PLATE    54 


[tHI5    note    15   orvtN    ON   THt  ORLGIMAL   TO  SAfEGUARP   AGAINST  ANY    POMFBLe  DISCREPANCY  JiETWEtN    THt  CURyt 
rof   THE:   5TONfc    AR^H  AND   THAT  Of- THE  WOODtN    fl^Mt .     SUCtt  AN  ERBpiV  15  VERY   LllCfcLY    TO  CRfrEP  IN 
WHEREVER^ THE  WORK.   OE  TWO  CONTRACTOR^    MUST  FIT  TOGETHER,  PERtECTlY  AND  IT  IS  V/ELL  TO  CALU  ATTENTION 
TO  THIS  T-ACT  £)Y  A  NOTE   DN   THE  DETAIL  .]         |„_/l^ 


^^OTE:-VER!^Y  I^DII  N  OtECKINGr 
6AMt  WiTtt  5T0NE:  ARC^t 
ON  THt  JOB. 


SECTION  "£)" 

^CALEz    Of-  StCTIONS     l2=I~<' 

I I I I I 

O  3  6  9 


la   INCMEiS 


ELEVATION  OF  ONE  DOOR. 


^CALt       4-"=    I'-O 


[on  THE  ARCHITECTS   DRAWINO   THt  JDOOR^ ELEVATION 
IS   MADE  AT  A  SCALE  Of  ^-l-o".    ALL   SECTIONS 
4^  ELEVATIONS    OE   PARIS    ARE  DRAWN    EULL  SIZE: . 
ONLY    THt    PP4.NCIPAL    sect's.  ARf:   HERE    GIVEN] 


\Jig€fraiflfn    /ro/n  fhe  p/ons    of  J 


DETAIL  OF  DOOR.  N9  63 


GR^Ct  METH0DI5T  CHURCH 

DAYTON  OHIO 


PLATE    55 


SHEET      METAL 
A-5H-|NCr 


/-ADOUT   Z 


WIRf    HANG-tRo 


METAL  LINED  5UMP 
AT  LOWEST  POINT  0^ 
■Rpor  TO  CATCH-  WATER. 


MOULDED 

•SHEET    ;^ETAL 

GUTTER^--)      ^^^.y^y-^  , 


DOWNiPOUT 

CONDUCTOlO 


PRPJECTING  CORNICE '^_^ 

OPEN    RAF-TE:R.5 


J!)OX  CORJSIC& 

WITtt   CURBED   RQOP 


.jior-.'iiGr  irVrroM 


/         /-TIN     OR,  COPPER^   ^ ■>- 

.     ..r,,^,.^     '-     /  \  LINED    GUTTER^-^    ^"^  * 

^^^TOJORM    CURyE  ^^^     ^X  |  ^^,^,R^ 


r-iiDDiNry     NAILED    TO 


-.'.VtL    JiOTTOMy      ^^ 


PLANCH  EK. 


O-W) 


PORCI-^  CORNICE 
4^  GUTTEK. 


trrdr    I   I  I  I   t  I   I    r  I   I   I   I  I   I   I   1  I 
l£  (NCHtd  3  6  J 


f    MATCHED 
'4»-  £>EADED 
CEILING- 


\  * -JiL-AM 


GUTTF.RS  AND  CORNICES  FOR  FR.AME  WALU 


PLATE    56 


PLANE:    Of 


^  PERPENDICULAR,  TO 
(  THE:   GROUND 


H0U5t 


.5     MOULDING-  AT  CORNE.1^ 


IN   THE:    PICTURE:  ABOVE:   15   5HOWN  A  CONDITION    IN  WHICH    A 

H0RJ20NTAL      MOULDING-    INTErR^tCT^     A    RAKING    OR,  SLOPING    MOULDING 

AT  THE:COR,NE:R^O^  A  BUILDING.     If-50TH   MOULDINGS    ARJ:  OP  THE  5AME: 

PROHLE:    THtY  WILL   NOT    PIT   TOGfcTHErR^AT   THE:   COR_NE:R^. 

THE:  DRAPT^MAN,  APTE:K,  HAVING   E:5TABL15HE:D   THE:    PROPILE:    Of" 

THE:   HORIZONTAL    MOULDING,    MU5T   DE:TE:RJ^INE:    THE:  PRpPE:K_ 

PRPPILE:    POR^THE:    R,AK.ING   MOULDING   SO  THAT    THE:  TWO 

WILL    MITE:R^TOGfcTHE:K_  ACCURATEzLY   AT  THIS    POINT. 

TO  ACCOMPLISH   THIS    HE:  PRpCE:E:DS    AS    SHOWN    i.E:LOW. 

\©  E:5TABLlStt   THE:  PRpPILE: 
OP  HORIZONTAL   MOULDING. 

@  DR.AW  SIDE:  VIEW  OP  RAKJNG  MOULDING 
NOTICING  THAT  END  Of-  MOULDING  HAS 
SAME:  PRQPILE:    AS    HORIZONTAL  MOULD. 


(D  LOCATE:  SEVERAL   P0INT5   ON  THE: 
PRPPILE:    AND  DRAW   THE:  DCn: 
AND  DASH    LINES    AS  SHOWN. 


@  DRAW   LINE:  A-B  PERPfcNDICULAR, 
TO  THE:  GRpUND   AND    LINE:    C-D 
PERPENDICULAR^TO  THE:   SLOPING  RpOP. 


(5)  PR©M    C-D   LAY  Opp  O,  EiOyAL  TO  O 
THEN  7?,"  tQJAL  TO  "d"  UC.  LOCATING 
ENOUGH    POINTS    POR^  ACCURATE:  WORR. 


(?)  CONNECTING   THESE:    POINTS    WILL 
GIVE    THE:    PRpPILE:    Op  THEr 
RAWNO    MOULDING. 


b 


CORNICE  MOULDING  FOR  GABLE  END 


PLATE    57 


5  TONE 
COPiN& 


DRJP- 


fr^W 


'block^ 

JiDGfc    OF-   RQOMNG- 
_0f-rLA5HmG-   IS 
5E:CURtD    IN  THE  GROOVE 
WITH-  ELASTIC    PACK;i.NO- 


^E-ATH-lHCr 


PLAT     Roof- 
ed  PARAPET    WALL 


5IMPLE:    CORNICE   <^ 
CONCEALED   GUTTEI\_ON   ELAT  R^OE 


MtTA^^S 


ANCHOR^  Jb: 
SUILT    INTO 
MASONRY    WALL'''-''/^ 


.';r:  ALSO 
Ta'.CORNICE: 
Of-  CLtVELAND 

discount  co. 
,:■!■:  lding 


TERRA  COTTA  CORNICE 
mm  MtTAL  LINED  WOOD  GUTTER^ 


H-i  .  1  ■  t  .  I .  t- 

12    INCHti         9 


^JCALfc       l2-  "   I- 


GUTTEHS  AND  CORNICES    FOR   MASONRY  WAILS 


ARCIITTK(  ri'RAL  DRAWING 


STAIRWAYS 

There  are  two  general  tv^^es  of  stairways,  the  closed  stair  where  the  steps  are  built  in  between  walls, 
and  the  open  stair  whicli  ma>'  have  a  balustrade  on  one  side  and  a  wall  on  the  other  or  balustrades  on 
both  sides.     See  Plate  58. 

I'Villowing  are  a  few  general  rules  and  reminders  which  should  be  observed  in  laying  out  a  stair 
so  as  to  obtain  the  most  of  comfort  and  safety  in  their  use,  and  ease  in  their  erection. 

That  ])arl  of  the  stair  on  which  we  step  is  called  the  tread  and  the  vertical  ])art  of  the  step  is  called 
the  riser.  Tlie  total  distance  from  lloor  to  floor  is  called  the  rise  and  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  heights 
of  all  the  risers.  The  horizontal  distance  from  the  face  of  the  bottom  riser  to  the  face  of  the  top  riser 
is  called  the  rit)i  and  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  all  the  treads.     These  are  all  noted  on  Plate  59. 

So  that  one  maj-  take  steps  of  normal  length  in  walking  up  a  stairway,  the  size  of  riser  and  tread 
must  be  considered  carefully.  The  height  of  one  riser  plus  the  width  of  one  tread  should  not  be  less  than 
17  inches  and  not  more  than  18  inches.  Another  good  rule  is  to  make  two  risers  plus  one  tread  equal  24 
inches.  A  good  average  for  residence  work  is  to  make  the  riser  7  inches  and  the  tread  10  inches.  Treads 
should  never  be  less  than  9  inches  from  face  to  face  of  risers  of  wood  stairs  or  10  inches  for  stone  steps. 
The  overhanging  part  of  the  tread  is  called  the  nosing  and  is  not  included  when  width  of  tread  is  figured 
nor  is  it  shown  on  the  scale  drawings.  See  Plates  58  and  59.  All  risers  must  be  the  same  height  and 
all  treads  must  be  the  same  width  on  a  stairway.  Unequal  treads  or  risers  will  form  a  stumbling 
place  on  the  stair. 

The  steps  of  a  curving  stair  are  called  winders  and  when  they  occur  in  the  same  stair  with  straight 
steps,  the  treads  of  the  winders  should  be  the  same  width  on  the  walking  line  as  those  of  the  straight 
steps. 

All  stairways  should  be  well  lighted,  both  naturally  and  artificially. 

A  front  stair  should  not  be  narrower  than  3'  —  o".     The  topof  a  handrail  should  be  about  2'  —  6 
above  the  tread  measuring  vertically  in  the  plane  of  the  riser.     This  height  may  be  increased  to  2'  —  8" 
or  more  where  the  rail  runs  level  as  on  landings. 


// 


97 


P  LATE    5S 


ABOVE:,  15   5HOWN    THt  DRAM5MANS     MfcTHOD   Of- 

DRAWINO   THt    PLAN    Of-  THI5    5TA1R_AT  A  5CALfc 

0^  4:'=l-0"   0R.-5  =  r-0'.       THE:  F-ACT   THAT   ThtE:    5TR.ING 

15  OPE:N    MUST  BE:    5HOWN  ON  AN    E:LErVAT10N   OI^  A  5E;CTION. 


5INGLE     FLIGHT  TO  SECOND   FLOOI^,    OPEK'-STAIl^  WITH 
OPEN   5TRiNO,   CL05ED  3A5EMENT  5TAIR.  DIRECTLY   UNDERNEATH 


m 


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'ABOVE:    LfcVfcL  AT   Vi^HICH   THE: 
PLAN    15    TAKJrN. 


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IN  HR^T  f-LlGHT 


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(:'■  THE:    STCPa   £.Rg>KJ:N    AWAY   TO  5HOW  THE:  ARK^ANGErME-NT 
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'PLATFORl^  5TAIR:',  OPEN    5TAIFLWITH   CL05ED    STRING 


L 


TYPES    OF     STA1R.WAY5 


PLATE    59 


STRAIGHT 
x-RAlL 


NEWfcL 


TYPE5   OF    1-tANDRAlL   TURN5 


w/w/vw/V//mww/;vwwvw 


SECTION  THRy   5TAIRy/AY 


TO  2NC.  PL 


£.ALU5TER^    DOVfc- 
TAILfcD    INTO    TREAD 
AND  THEN    COVER.ED 
WITH-   MOULDING-    LlK-fc 
THE    N051NG   Of  TH£   TRpAD. 


PICTORjAL 
DRAWINGr    OF 

0>  //  5TA1R_ 

WlTht     PARJ5     REMOVED 
TO   ^htOW   CON5T RUCTION 


STAII^WAY       DETAILS 


PLATE     60 


ARCHITF.t'ri'KAL   DRAWING 


Handrails  are  either  continuous  with  a  curved  portion  or  wreath  where  they  change  direction  or 
else  thc\-  arc  straight  and  ha\'c  newel  posts  where  they  change  direction  as  shown  in  Plate  59,  Types  of 
Handrail  Turns.  The  last  mentioned  rail  is  usually  the  cheajier  one  to  build.  Starling  newels  should 
extend  down  through  thr  lloor  and  \)v  bolted  to  the  lloor  joist  or  else  fastened  to  a  timber  which  has 
been  so  boiled.  Landing  newels  should  carry  down  similarly  through  the  landing  so  as  to  afford  a 
secure  fastening.  The  center  line  of  the  handrail  should  be  on  the  center  line  of  the  newels  and  ma\'  be 
assumed  to  come  directly  over  the  face  of  the  plaster  wall  or  the  wood  panels  below.  See  Plate6o. 
Where  possible,  let  risers  intersect  newels  on  the  center  line  of  the  newel.     See  Plate  58. 

Special  attention  should  be  gi\'en  to  the  head  room  on  a  stairway  and  this  should  never  be  less  than 
6'  —  6"  as  shown  by  the  stairway  section  on  Plate  59,  and  should  be  7'—  o"  to  8'  —  o"  if  space  will  permit. 

The  construction  to  carry  the  stair  must  be  kei)t  in  mind  and  sufficient  space  allowed  for  strings 
and  carriages. 

It  is  always  well  and  often  necessary  to  draw  a  section  through  the  stairway  similar  to  that  on 
Plate  59.  This  section  should  show  the  newels,  balusters,  rails,  etc.  Draw  it  in  such  a  way  as  best  to 
show  the  stairway.     The  one  given  on  the  plate  is  merely  diagrammatic. 

On  the  scale  drawings  should  be  shown  in  plan  and  elexalion  the  location  of  the  risers,  the  handrails 
and  newels  and  a  few  general  dimensions  such  as  the  rise,  the  run,  the  width  to  center  line  of  handrail 
and  the  height  of  the  handrail.  Sometimes  the  risers  are  numbered  beginning  with  the  bottom  riser. 
This  is  for  convenience  in  reading  the  drawing.     See  Plates  22  and  37. 

Sometimes  only  the  mouldings  of  a  stairway  are  detailed  full  si/.e,  but  for  good  work,  full-size 
details  are  made  of  the  newels,  rails,  balusters  and  all  mouldings,  and  sometimes  of  the  entire  start  of 
the  stair,  such  as  that  given  on  Plate  60. 

The  diagonal  use  of  the  scale  as  described  by  Fig.  30  on  Plate  4  affords  a  handy  way  of  laying  oS 
any  number  of  steps  quickly  and  accurately. 


lOI 


PLATE    61 


TA5LE:  OP  DlME:N5ION^ 


M 


WIDTH  OP 

OPENINO 

HtlGHT  Cf 
OPtNINO 

JXlPTH-  OV 
f-IRtPLACE 

DRfAJT 

WIDTH-  Of- 

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"f-" 

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I-4" 

fl" 

1-6" 

4 

aH2 

13 

id 

\6' 

3-6" 

2-4' 

;-4- 

a' 

1-6' 

4-" 

12'' 12 

13" 

lO' 

13" 

4-o" 

2-6" 

1-4" 

fl" 

i-s" 

4 

12- 12' 

i3" 

10 

15" 

4.-  6" 

2-a' 

1-6 

a' 

2-0 

A 

12^12" 

14 

lo' 

Ifc 

5'-0" 

J  -o 

i-a" 

12" 

2-0- 

A 

l2'Ma" 

15 

12" 

21" 

i 


1^ 


\ 


< 


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£>  ^MOK^  CHAMBE:R_ 

C  PATEiMT  I)AMP£:R_ 

D  THRPAT 

B  £)RE:A5T 


^tCTlON 

THE:  AbOVfc  DIAGRAM  AND  TABLE:   Of"  DIMENSIONS    MAY  £>L 
USED    A3  A  GUIDE:    IN  LAYING    OUT   A  SUCCE5JEUL    PlRtPLACE 
OE    THE  WIDTH    NOTED.    THE:  DIME:N3ION3    NEED   NOT  £>£ 
F-OLLOWfcD     EXACTLY    £UT   THE    PRPPORJION5    SHOULD  J3E: 
PRESERVED     AS    NEARLY    A3    THE    MATERIAL    USED   WILL 
PERMIT.    THE  PICTURE:    OIVE3    A  COMPREHEN3IVE:    IDEA   Of-  A 
EIRE  PLACE   AND    MANTEL  WHILE    THE    ELEVATION,  SECTION  AND 
PLAN    SHOW  THE  ARCHITECT5    DRAWING3   OE  THIi   PCTAIL. 


tLtVATION 


-WIDTH- 
PL  ArN 


HALP  tLEVATION 


ELUE:"^   )[     \v; 
ABOV&^=^=^    -^ 


Z.  Htf 


1-0 

O  !£   INCHES 


PICTORJAL     5E:CTION 

THRU    CENTtK^OP 

PIKtPLACE:.  MANTEL  (|r  ELUE 


MR.EPLACE       DETAILS 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


THE  FIREPLACE 

The  fireplace  has  been  called  the  central  feature  of  the  home  and  as  such  should  be  given  careful 
consideration  by  the  architect. 

The  form,  proportions  and  material  must  be  sucli  that  the  fuel  for  which  the  iireplace  is  designed 
will  burn  in  it  readily  without  sending  gas  or  smoke  out  into  the  room. 

Heat  is  thrown  out  by  radiation,  reflection  and  by  movement  of  the  heated  air.  If  the  side  walls 
of  the  fireplace  slope  in  as  they  extend  back,  they  will  reflect  heat  out  into  the  room,  which  would  not  be 
the  case  if  they  ran  straight  back.  Sloping  the  back  wall  as  shown  on  Plate  6i  also  helps  to  reflect  the 
heat  out  into  the  room. 

Any  chance  down-draft  in  tlie  chimney  will  be  arrested  by  the  smoke  shelf  as  shown  by  the  arrows 
in  the  section,  thus  preventing  the  smoke  from  being  driven  into  the  room. 

The  amount  of  opening  in  the  throat  must  vary  with  different  conditions  of  the  fire  and  atmosphere, 
but  when  wide  open,  must  be  equal  in  area  to  the  flue  above.  To  allow  for  adjusting  the  size  of  the 
throat,  a  damper  should  be  built  into  it.  This  is  nothing  more  than  a  large  simple  valve  for  controlling 
the  size  of  the  throat. 

All  dimensions  of  the  fireplace  depend  on  the  size  of  the  opening  into  the  room.  At  the  top  of 
Plate  6i  is  a  diagram  of  a  fireplace  properly  proportioned  and  a  list  of  dimensions  for  several  sizes  of 
openings. 

When  an  iron  grate  or  basket  is  to  be  used  for  burning  coal,  the  dimensions  and  shape  of  the  basket 
will  determine  to  a  certain  extent  the  size  and  proportions  of  the  fireplace. 

All  fireplaces,  except  those  for  gas,  should  be  lined  with  4  inches  of  fire  brick. 

If  wood  is  to  be  the  fuel,  the  fireplace  should  be  about  18  inches  deep. 

The  floor  is  protected  from  the  heat  of  the  fire  by  the  hearth  which  is  built  of  brick,  stone,  tile,  etc. 
There  are  several  methods  of  supporting  the  hearth,  two  of  which  are  shown  on  the  drawing.  The 
usual  method  in  wooden  floors  is  by  means  of  the  trimmer  arch  as  shown  in  the  sectional  view.  The 
hearth  may  be  carried  on  the  joist  as  indicated  in  the  pictorial  section  but  shrinkage  of  the  joist  will 
cause  cracks  to  open  up  in  the  hearth  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  arch  shown  in  the  orthographic 
section. 


10.^ 


PLATE     62 


PEDIMENT 


PAPI5  , 

3UPP0KrED   " 


5UPPOKriNG 
MEM5EP4 


BA5E 


1UMN3 


MA150N      CAPvRiE      "]     NIME5^ 
Roman     cofmnthian     ytMPLE 


26P  - 


IM-4jP 


28  P 


T  IM 


ABOUT 
5JD 


m 


STVLOBATt 


EGYPTIAN 


GREEK   DORIC  Oiy?f.PvOF  THE 

ORptlVOF  THE         TEMPLt  OF  K^RtlAIC 
PAKTHtNON  AT  ATHENE 


PKPPOMIONi    OF  THE    GReEI^i 
BY    VIGNOLA 


ARTIC  LE  VIT 

THE  ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

Plates  62  to  73 

A  buildinj;  may  be  (ii\i(lcd  into  three  primary  parts,  a  substructure  or  base,  the  sufjporting  members 
and  tlic  sujiporled  part.  When  the  supporting  member  is  continuous  it  is  called  a.wall,  if  however,  the 
supi)ortcd  part  is  carried  upon  heavy,  more  or  less  isolated  supports,  these  are  called  piers.  The  lighter, 
more  slender  supports  are  called  columns.  The  member  which  rests  upon  the  columns  or  piers,  spanning 
the  sjiace  between  them  and  carrying  the  parts  above,  is  a  bra»i  or  liiilcl,  and  when  the  lintel  is  the  direct 
support  for  a  roof,  it,  tt)gether  with  the  overhanging  part  of  the  roof,  is  called  an  entablature.  The  wall 
in  a  pediment  is  known  as  the  ly»ipa>!ii»i. 

That  ornamented  columns  were  made  use  of  many  centuries  before  Christ  has  been  proven  by  the 
discoveries  of  archaeologists.  The  form  and  proportions  of  these  supports  were  gradually  improved 
until,  in  the  classic  temples,  they  reached  the  height  of  their  development. 

Many  examples  of  these  classic  columns  are  in  existence  today  together  with  their  entablatures, 
bases,  etc.     These  have  been  measured  carefully  and  drawn  up,  making  them  available  to  the  designer. 

The  classic  column  consists  of  a  shaft  which  is  ornamented  at  the  top  by  a  capital  and  at  the  bottom 
by  a  base.  The  base  is  sometimes  carried  upon  a  member  called  a  pedestal  when  short  and  a  podium 
when  continuous.  The  column  together  with  its  entablature  identify  the  style  of  architecture  of  the 
building  and  is  called  an  Order  of  Architecture. 

The  diagram  on  Plate  62  gives  the  names  of  the  various  parts  of  the  classic  Orders  for  reference  as 
they  are  used  in  the  following  text. 

There  are  many  and  various  examples  of  each  of  the  Orders.  Those  given  in  the  accompanying 
plates  seem  best  to  represent  each  Order. 

Plate  62  gives  a  comparison  of  the  proportions  of  the  five  Orders  of  Architecture  as  fixed  by  the 
Italian  architect,  Giacomo  Barozzi,  born  at  Vignola,  Italy,  in  1507,  died  1573.  The  Greek  Order  of  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens  and  the  Egyptian  Order  of  the  Temple  of  Karnak  are  also  shown. 

All  dimensions  on  the  plates  are  given  in  terms  of  the  base  diameter  of  the  shaft.  This  diameter 
is  divided  for  convenience  into  two  parts  called  modules  and  each  module  is  divided  into  30  equal  divi- 
sions called  parts. 

In  stud\ing  the  Orders,  the  student  should  learn  their  principal  proportions  and  rely  on  the  plates 
only  for  those  detailed  dimensions  which  can  not  be  called  to  mind  readily.  After  becoming  acrjuainted 
with  the  Orders  and  with  the  principles  of  design,  it  will  be  found  that  the  details  may  be  varied  almost 
at  will,  to  suit  conditions. 


los 


PLATE    65 


COLUMN  RASE 


PEDESTAL 


VO^^ 


<-  lik-^ 


af^ 


fS 


—/OM 


J  5- J*^A 


VIGNOLA"5   TUSCAN    ORDER. 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


TUSCAN  ORDER 

The  Tuscan  is  a  Roman  Order  named  from  Tuscany,  a  part  of  Italy.  It  is  really  a  simple  Roman 
Doric  being  \ery  similar  to  that  Order  except  that  it  has  no  ornament  and  lacks  the  refinement  of  the 
other  Roman  Orders.  The  proportions  seem  to  be  those  peculiar  to  timber  construction  rather  than 
stone. 

There  are  very  few  fragments  of  this  Order  remaining  to  us  but  several  of  the  Italian  masters  have 
invented  what  they  thought  should  be  the  details  and  dimensions  of  the  comjilete  Order.  The  best  of 
these  is  probablj-  the  one  invented  by  \'ignola  and  is  given  on  the  opposite  Plate  63.  It  is  very  simple 
and  easily  executed,  all  of  the  moulding  profiles  being  made  up  of  circle  arcs  and  straight  lines.  The 
column  shaft  is  not  fluted  and  the  base  consists  of  a  simple  torus  resting  upon  a  perfectly  plain  plinth 
block. 


107 


PLATE     64 


ARCHITECTIR AL  DRAWING 


GREEK  DORIC 

The  Doric  Order  was  probably  named  al'Ur  tlic  race  of  Dorians,  a  people  of  ancient  Greece.  It  is 
the  oldest  of  the  tlirco  Greek  Orders  and  in  it  is  found  the  most  subtle  refinement  of  outline  and  propor- 
tion known  to  architecture.  It  is  said  that  the  proi)ortions  of  man  were  the  basis  of  the  Doric  dimen- 
sions, a  man  being  about  six  times  as  high  as  the  length  of  his  foot,  so  the  column  height  is  about  six 
times  its  base  diameter. 

The  best  e.xample  of  this  Order  is  that  of  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  built  about  438  B.C.  The  Order 
of  the  Parthenon  is  given  on  Plate  64. 

The  base  of  the  Greek  temj)le  is  called  a  slylohalc  and  usually  consisted  of  three  large  steps.  The 
Doric  column  has  no  base,  the  shaft  rising  directly  from  the  stylobate  and  having  a  height  from  4H  to 
61 2  times  its  base  diameter.  The  column  usually  was  scored  with  20  elliptical  channels  meeting  in  a 
sharp  edge  or  arris.  The  capital  is  very  simple  and  suggests  great  supporting  strength,  it  consists  of 
a  heavy  square  slab  called  an  abacus  below  which  is  an  ovolo  echinus  of  subtle  ])rofile.  Toward  the 
bottom  of  the  echinus  are  several  raised  bands  or  anmdets  against  the  lower  one  of  which  the  channels 
terminate.  There  is  no  distinct  necking  to  this  order,  but  in  place  of  an  astragal  we  find  grooves  on 
the  shaft  just  below  the  echinus.  These  are  called  scamilli.  They  produce  a  pleasing  band  of  shading 
at  this  point.     The  shaft  between  the  annulets  and  the  scamilli  is  called  the  hypotrachelitim. 

Most  of  the  Greek  Doric  architraves  are  plain  and  very  deep,  and  the  soffits  are  a  little  less  than 
two  modules  in  width  in  the  better  examples.  At  the  top  of  the  architrave  is  a  broad  terminating 
fillet  called  the  taenia,  also  a  flat  band  called  a  regula  from  which  are  suspended  the  peg-like  forms  called 
gtittae  occurring  beneath  each  triglyph. 

The  frieze  contains  a  series  of  raised  slabs  called  triglyphs,  between  which  are  square  spaces  called 
metopes.  A  trigh-ph  occurs  over  the  center  line  of  each  column  and  one  centered  over  the  space  between 
columns.  Thus  the  width  of  the  metope  determines  the  spacing  of  the  columns.  Where  there  is  a 
break  in  the  entablature  as  at  the  corner  of  the  building  the  trigl^^ph  occurs  at  the  corner  and  not 
centering  over  the  corner  column.  The  next  triglyph  then  is  centered  between  the  corner  one  and  that 
over  the  next  column  which  makes  the  metopes  between  them  slightly  wider  than  normal.  As  the 
corner  columns  are  usually  placed  closer  together  than  the  others,  this  difference  in  the  metopes  is  not 
noticeable.  The  triglj^ihs  are  about  one  module  in  width  and  are  scored  with  two  vertical  V  shaped 
channels  and  the  two  corners  are  chamfered  with  a  cut  similar  to  a  half  channel.  These  channels  begin 
down  on  the  cap  of  the  architrave  and  terminate  in  slightly  varying  forms  just  below  the  plain  band  cap 
of  the  triglyph.  The  face  of  the  triglyph  usually  lines  up  with  that  of  the  architrave  below,  while  the 
face  of  the  metope  is  set  back  and  usually  ornamented  with  sculjitured  and  painted  figures.  There  is  a 
plain  band  cap  on  the  metope  similar  to  that  of  the  triglyph  but  not  cjuite  so  wide.  The  corona  ])rojects 
about  one  module  beyond  the  frieze  and  is  about  three-fourths  as  high  as  its  projection.  Its  lower  sur- 
face or  soffit  sloi)es  up  toward  the  building  to  a  broad  continuous  band  just  above  the  frieze.  The  soffit  is 
broken  up  by  fiat  blocks  called  miitidcs,  one  occurring  over  each  triglyph  and  each  metope.  On  the  lower 
surface  of  the  mutules  are  guttae  similar  to  those  on  the  architrave.  The  crowning  member  of  the 
entablature  is  the  cvmatium  which  is  often  richh'  ornamented. 


109 


PLATE    65 


PLATE    66 


ARCHITECT UR.\L  DRAWING 


ROMAN  DORIC  ORDER 

In  the  Roman  Doric  we  have  an  Order  resembling  the  Greek  Doric  in  a  general  way  but  having 
some  very  marked  differences.  Foremost  among  these  are  a  general  lightening  of  the  proportions,  the 
addition  of  a  base  to  the  column  and  an  alteration  of  the  mouldings  of  the  capital.  The  Roman  column 
has  a  necking  and  an  astragal  and  the  channels  stop  below  the  astragal.  There  are  two  distinct  entabla- 
tures to  this  Order.  One  of  them  has  the  mutules  similar  to  the  Greek  Doric  while  the  other  has,  in 
place  of  the  mutules,  a  series  of  small  supporting  blocks  called  dentils.  The  corner  triglyph  occurs 
over  the  center  of  the  corner  column  and  not  at  the  corner  of  the  frieze  as  in  the  Greek  Order. 

The  best  example  of  the  Order  is  probably  the  theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome  and  it  is  from  this 
that  \'ignola  derives  his  Denticular  Doric  Order  given  on  Plate  66.  His  Mutular  Order,  Plate  65, 
seems  to  have  been  inspired  by  that  found  at  Albano  near  Rome.  Another  example,  from  the  baths 
of  Diocletian,  is  cjuite  ornate  and  tends  toward  the  Ionic  in  its  detail. 


tI2 


ARCIHTErTURAi,   DRAWING 


IONIC  ORDER 

The  Ionic  Order,  named  from  the  lonians  of  ancient  Greece,  is  generally  lighter  in  i)roportion  than 
the  Doric.  It  occurs  in  two  distinct  tjpes,  the  Attic-Ionic  and  the  Asiatic-Ionic,  whose  principal 
difference  lies  in  the  column  base  and  the  cornice.  The  base  of  the  Attic-Ionic,  Plate  69,  consists  of 
an  upper  torus,  sometimes  very  large,  below  this  a  large  scolia  and  at  the  bottom  a  smaller  lorus  which  in 
some  instances  is  entirely  omitted.  The  base  of  the  Asiatic  type  consists  of  a  torus  resting  upon  a 
double  scotid  which  is  carried  by  a  square  plinth. 

The  column  is  from  8  to  10  diameters  in  height  and  is  scored  by  24  semicircular  //i//<'5  separated 
by  fillets. 

The  capital  is  the  distinctive  feature  of  the  Order  and  there  are  several  theories  as  to  its  origin. 
One  of  the  best  of  these  seems  to  be  that  it  is  the  development  of  the  conventionalized  Egyj)tian  lotus 
flower.  In  Assyria,  tiles  have  been  found  on  which  are  primitive  Ionic  forms;  no  remains  of  Ionic 
buildings  have  been  found  there  however.  The  Ionic  capital  was  eivdently  not  intended  for  use  at  the 
corner  of  a  building  as  its  sides  are  difTerent  from  the  front  and  back.  To  overcome  this  difficulty,  the 
Greeks  placed  the  volutes  of  the  corner  columns  on  both  of  the  outside  faces  bringing  the  two  corner 
volutes  together  on  the  diagonal,  as  in  the  temple  on  the  Ilissus  near  Athens.  See  Plate  69.  The  pillow- 
like rolls  on  the  sides  of  the  capitals  back  of  the  volutes  are  called  balusters  and  are  sometimes  orna- 
mented by  flutes  or  foliage.  In  some  examples  are  found  a  necking  and  an  astragal  while  in  others  the 
shaft  terminates  under  an  ovolo  moulding  just  below  the  cushion  of  the  volutes. 

The  architrave  is  either  plain  or  divided  into  two  or  three  plain  surfaces  each  projecting  slightly 
beyond  the  one  below.  Its  crowning  member  is  a  cyma  moulding  and  fillet.  The  frieze  is  a  flat  surface 
to  receive  sculpture.  The  corona  is  a  plain  undercut  member  supported  by  a  cyma  bed-mould  in  the 
Attic  form  and  by  a  dentil  course  in  the  Asiatic.  The  cymatium  and  its  supporting  moulding  are  often 
elaborately  ornamented. 

Since  the  Ionic  volute  is  rather  difficult  to  draw,  the  method  of  laying  it  out  is  given  in  detail  on 
Plate  68.     For  small  scale  drawings  the  construction  may  be  simplified. 


"3 


PLATE    67 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


ROMAN  IONIC 

The  Roman  Ionic  Order  seems  to  have  been  borrowed  from  the  Asiatic  style.  The  Romans  how- 
ever lost  the  beauty  of  proportion  and  form  that  characterized  the  latter,  and  in  its  place  overloaded  the 
Order  with  bold  ornament  and  made  the  entablature  heavy  and  unpleasant.  The  cornice  was  usually 
large  and  supported  by  dentils.  The  mouldings  were  semicircular  in  section,  lacking  the  refinement 
of  those  of  the  Greeks.  The  best  example  of  this  Order  is  that  of  the  theatre  of  Marcellus  at  Rome, 
and  it  is  from  this  that  Vignola's  Ionic,  Plate  67,  seems  to  have  been  derived.  His  base  however  is 
like  that  described  by  Vitruvius. 


"5 


PLATE      68 


I  —  Locafe    verf/ca/   orxJ  harizonfat 

Z.—£>ra»t^  //7e  eye  c^e/  /^s  jguare  in  tf. 
3-/}/~aty  //7&  /*vc»  ^5° //ne^  /rf  the 
£^u£3^e  and  mark,  o/f  the  cerrferz 
on  /nem    Qccor<^/np   fo  fhe  cfeta//. 


4~loca^e  f/je  three,  fioinfj  of  infer- 
jecf/on  on  /he  t^er/Zca/  onct  /he 
hor/z.on/a/  ce/?/er  //nes  oj  ^/Ve/? 
/n  /he  e^e/a//  be/ot^^ 
3-03refu//y  c/ra»v  /he  //nes  tp'h/ch 
/oca/e  /he  po/n/j  of  fanoency  <Sf 
/tie  circfe    ores. 


&-H//f/7  pain/  No.  t  05  a  cen/er  and 
a  rac/iL/s  /—A  c/ro»^  arc  / /opo/nf3. 
Proceed/  jfn7/7ar/y  ty^/h  cen/ers  2, 3 
e/c  fo  cenfer  /£  tvh/ch  t^///  cont- 
p/e/e  /he  oi/fer  f/ne  of  fhe  yo/ufe. 


7~With  poinf  No.  13  as  a  center  and 
a  radium    13- 1  c/raw  crrc  fo  H. 
Proceed  j/m//ar/jf  uj/n^  poinfs  /■?, 
/S  e/c.  as  cen/ers  /o  co/np/ete  fhe 
yofufe. 


SUCCESilVI  STAGES  IN  W^ 


VIGNOlXS    IONIC  VOLUTE 


PLATE    69 


PLATE    70 


PLATE    71 


aj  o/  fc7  corner,  ///te  Arce 
of  uppef  JAa/V"  tt<f/A  //. 


ana  <eftf9r  fine  et/  Ca/cm/t. 


men   //?*  Aj/na^/. 


I>rai^  p/an .  ///en  Mts 
c/€i^-t3/ton  a/  //fff  A&aciAj. 


I>ratv  on«  ^uar/er  ^/an  /Aen 
c/fft^a/t'on  o/Jie//  //^////y. 


loca/ff  Cou//C<*/f  one/  VoA//ej 
//7  fifon,  f/rcn  /n  e/eva/torr. 


ttTren    an    accurafc    t^-xtrfttn^    ^rat»'/nf  /j 
diej/r-et/  //  H'/'//  ^  tfe//  /o  make  a  carefuf 
^r^tvtn^  o/  eac/?  c/e/a//  jepararely  ^ 
n'orkin^  on  /racing  paper  ov^er  //te 
G//7er  c/e/aifs.    r/feje   t/ratf/n^j  may  /*«w 
i>e  asje/r73/ec/  &nc/  pr^jsn/ec/  oj  /n 
/Ae  p/a/7   ancf  &/e^^//o/7  be/oiv,  or  a/^ermje. 


SUCCESSIVE    iTAGES  IN 
THE   COIUNTHIAN  CAPI 


Ot/fftne  /f>c  /Of¥^r  /eotvj , 


Ji^n  /eay^j   /ram  Cacy//co//. 


i^/'c    /n   a'^e/cft'/. 


^^ 


.SECTION  AT  E-F 


Via/toto'i   Cor/nt/7/on    Capita/  as  ff/t^vn  Affrv  /n 
f/cfai/  jAocr/e/  no/  t>e  jfai^/j/t/y   cop/'^e/  as  a 
tv/7o/ff.  A//  j/foc/i/  />e  uJe^  ra/i^er  oj  a  pui^e 
n  /ayinp  ou/  f/te  proper  cop/ /a/  for  o/iy 
par/icu/ar  c/esi^n. 

y^pno/oj    mcfhO(/  o/  ^ferminin^  //te  pr€>/ec/- 
/on  o/  //le   /eay^s    ^o^s    //o/   procfucc    ///e 
nio^f  p/eoj/ny  resi//t    as  i/  ^iv^s    //?e/n 
/oo  mt^/t  ow^r/fon^,  es/yec/a//y  «?  //>e  jccont^ 
ro**^  o/  /^a^ss. 

The  ^e/oi/c£/  p/an  of  //ie  capi/a/  ij  ^/i^en 
OJ  of  /Ar  setivra/  po/nfs   ineficofec/  jby 
//Iff  /9^ers  on  /he  e/ei^t2/ion. 


Partes      ti'iiiiiifiinihMn nt 


zl    Afo<^u/e 


VIGNOLA5    CORINTHIAN     ORDER 


PLATE    72 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


GREEK  CORINTHIAN 

According  to  \'itruvius  it  was  the  Greek  sculptor  ("allimachos  (fifth  century  B.C.)  who,  upon  seeing 
a  basket  grown  about  with  acanthus  leaves,  conceived  the  idea  of  the  Corinthian  cai)ital.  From  this 
was  developed  the  Greek  Corinthian  Order  which  consists  of  this  capital  used  together  with  certain 
members  of  the  Greek  Ionic.  The  sculptors  of  this  nation  employed  the  acanthus  leaf  in  a  highl}- 
conventionalized  form  in  their  Order  while  the  Roman  acanthus  forms  were  more  Hke  the  natural  leaf. 
The  body  of  the  Corinthian  capital  is  similar  to  an  inverted  bell  over  the  top  of  which  is  a  cjuadrilateral 
abacus.  This  abacus  has  a  moulded  edge  which  curves  in  on  each  side  and  is  cut  off  at  an  angle  of  45 
degrees  at  the  corners.  The  bell-shaped  body  is  separated  from  the  shaft  of  the  column  by  a  torus  and 
conge.  The  leaves  of  the  capital  spring  up  from  the  torus  as  though  coming  from  beneath  the  bell  and 
are  disposed  in  various  ways  around  it. 

ROMAN  CORINTHIAN 

It  was  the  Romans  who  fully  developed  the  Corinthian  Order  and  gave  to  us  the  typical  capital. 
This  capital  contains  two  rows  of  acanthus  leaves  with  eight  leaves  in  either  row  from  which  spring  the 
stems  and  tendrils  which  form  the  corner  volutes.  The  lip  of  the  bell  in  the  Roman  capital  projects 
slightly  beyond  the  abacus  at  its  narrowest  point  while  the  Greek  abacus  entirely  covers  the  bell.  The 
Greek  Corinthian  and  Ionic  differ  only  in  the  capital,  but  the  Roman  Corinthian  has  a  distinctive  entab- 
lature as  well.  The  corona  is  supported  by  a  series  of  beam-like  brackets  called  modillions  which  are 
ornamented  with  the  acanthus  leaf.  The  band  from  which  the  modillions  project  is  in  turn  supported 
by  a  dentil  course.  The  architrave  is  divided  into  several  bands  which  are  separated  by  small  mould- 
ings.    The  tendency  in  this  Order  as  in  the  Roman  Ionic  was  toward  over-enrichment. 

The  Corinthian  Order  by  Vignola  is  given  on  Plate  70.  It  was  derived  from  various  examples  then 
existing  and  so  no  doubt  is  an  average  of  the  Classic  Corinthian  Orders. 

COMPOSITE  ORDER 

This  Order  is  so  called  because  it  is  composed  of  parts  of  the  other  Orders  in  various  combinations. 
It  occurs  in  man}-  forms,  but  the  ones  which  are  generally  accepted  under  this  name  are  made  up  of 
parts  of  the  Ionic  and  Corinthian  Orders.  The  proportions  are  practically  the  same  as  the  Corinthian 
but  there  is  much  less  of  refinement  and  dignity  about  this  Order  than  the  others.  It  was  usually  very 
much  over-ornamented  and  in  some  extreme  examples  lost  almost  all  resemblance  to  the  Orders  from 
which  it  was  developed. 

Vignola's  Composite,  as  shown  on  Plate  72,  probably  represents  this  Order  at  its  best,  but  in  con- 
sidering it,  the  student  must  remember  that  it  is  but  one  of  a  great  many  varieties  and  marks  the  begin- 
ning of  the  end  of  classic  excellence. 


121 


PLATE 

75 

FIG.  73            FIG.  74            FIG.' 

1                       1  ■                       1 

!'5 

I— 

A^76 

FIG.  77 

Y 

V 

■  \ 

J 

:  V 

V 

1 

-v^\ 

1 

-| 

I 

-] 

E 

'l 

"i;^^— 

I, 

K 

,<^ 

^ 

E 

vu 

V 

tj 

D 

^'^\ 

\ 

\ 

§' 

■  Vjf' 

^ 

- 

- 

^^ 

c> 

M\^'~'-~J'      \ 

N 

N. 

.^r^ 

) 

- 

/^J^' 

-5 

^\ 

^^t 

\ 

1, 

\ 

"'i 

F^__ 

A 

c^ 

<^'-- 

X"' 

A- 

-  r- 

-■     ^f 

( 

1 

1 

ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


COLUMN  ENTASIS 

It  will  be  noticed  that  tlu'  sliat"t  of  the  classic  column  is  smaller  at  tlic  top  than  at  the  l)otlom.  The 
diameter  of  the  shaft  does  not  (hniinish  in  direct  i)ro])ortion  to  the  height,  bnt  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 
an  elTect  of  swelling  just  above  the  center  of  the  shaft.  This  curvature  is  called  entasis.  It  begins  one- 
third  of  the  way  up  the  shaft  in  most  Orders,  the  lower  third  being  cylindrical  except  in  the  Greek  Doric 
shaft  where  the  entasis  begins  at  the  bottom. 

If  the  shaft  were  left  straight  from  bottom  to  toj),  it  would  seem  to  be  slightly  curved  in  near  the 
center,  thereby  giving  to  the  shaft  an  appearance  of  weakness.  The  entasis  prevents  this  optical  effect 
and,  at  the  same  time,  gives  to  the  shaft  a  certain  life  which  it  would  otherwise  lack. 

The  entasis  ma>-  be  drawn  on  all  small  work,  by  the  proper  manipulation  of  the  pencil  against 
the  straight-edge  and  without  any  construction.  The  method  of  doing  this  is  described  by  Figs.  73  to 
76  on  Plate  73. 

First  the  caj)  and  base  of  the  column  are  drawn  and  then  the  vertical  part  of  the  shaft  is  drawn  to 
point  B,  Fig.  73,  one-third  of  the  distance  up.  The  straight-edge  is  placed  as  shown  and  the  pencil 
placed  against  the  straight-edge  and  sloping  so  that  the  point  rests  on  the  line  at  B.  Now  draw  the  line 
along,  at  the  same  time  throwing  the  point  of  the  pencil  gradually  farther  away  from  the  straight-edge 
until  location  C,  Fig.  74,  is  reached.  From  here  on,  the  pencil  is  straightened  up  as  the  line  proceeds. 
This  is  indicated  at  D,  Fig.  75,  and  the  pencil  point  is  finally  brought  up  against  the  straight-edge  just 
as  the  line  reaches  point  E.  After  a  little  practice,  the  student  can  draw  a  nicely  curving  entasis  by 
this  simple  method. 

For  all  work  where  greater  accuracy  is  required  and  where  the  change  in  rate  of  curvature  must  be 
constant,  the  method  of  Fig.  77  may  be  employed. 

Here  the  shaft  from  5  to  £  is  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts  (in  this  case  six)  and  the  part 
plan  of  the  shaft  is  drawn  at  B.  Point  E  is  now  projected  down  to  the  plan  at/  and  the  circle  arc/-5 
is  divided  into  the  same  number  of  parts  as  the  shaft  above.  From  each  of  the  points  thus  determined 
on  the  circle  arc,  project  up  to  the  corresponding  line  above.  This  will  give  the  points  through  which 
the  curving  shaft  line  is  to  be  drawn. 

After  the  entasis  has  been  thus  drawn  for  accurate  work,  the  shaft  is  dimensioned  by  giving  the 
diameters  at  each  of  the  horizontal  lines.  From  such  a  drawing  the  work  can  be  gotten  out  exactly 
as  drawn. 


123 


PLATE    74 


b 


h 


.£ 


A        C  A  D       CEAPD       CEAP-D        CE:A^D 

FIG.  78        FIG.  79  FIG.  80  FIG.  81  FIG.  82 


TftRP 


FOURTH 


<5£C0ND 


fl^5T 


FIG.  83 


FIG.  84 


FIG.  83 


FIG.  86 


FIG.  87 


CLLA:.  CJT,^;;.;i..l,  £f  MLICWt;  lyjDY  16  nor  i/LLi'LY   MODtLtD. 

GrREEK.  L&AVE5 


RICftLY  MODtLtD  £ODY  WITH  LOBtS  MORI:  I'RpNOUNCtD  &  5I:R.RATE:D. 

ROMAN     LEAVER 


ARTICLE  VIII 

ACANTHUS  LEAF 

Plate  74 

Since  the  acanthus  leaf  is  so  often  employed  as  architectural  ornament,  it  is  well  to  give  here  a  few 
aids  to  the  draftsman  in  laying  it  out. 

With  the  basic  facts  in  mind,  one  who  is  at  all  handy  with  his  pencil  should  be  able  to  achieve  good 
results  in  drawing  the  leaf. 

It  will  be  impossible  to  take  up  each  of  the  many  architectural  uses  to  which  this  leaf  is  commonly 
put,  but  if  the  fundamentals  are  mastered,  the  drawing  of  the  leaf  for  any  condition  will  be  simply  a 
matter  of  application. 

The  student  should  begin  b>-  la\  ing  the  leaf  out  perfectly  flat  so  that  he  may  become  acquainted 
with  its  forms  and  proportions,  Plate  74. 

Draw  the  vertical  center  line  A-B,  Fig.  78,  of  the  desired  height.  This  for  a  practice  drawing  might 
be  about  8  inches.  Then  draw  the  base  line  C-D,  Fig.  79,  about  half  as  long  as  the  height.  Divide 
C-D  into  si.\  equal  parts  and  mark  off  one  part  either  side  of  the  line  A-B  at  E  and  F.  Draw  lines  from 
E  to  B  and  from  /*'  to  B.  Measure  down  from  B  a  distance  equal  to  one-fifth  of  Hne  A-B  and  draw  the 
light  horizontal  lines  either  side  of  A-B.  This  is  the  spring  line  for  the  top  curve  of  the  leaf.  From 
points  C  and  D  draw  lines  parallel  to  E-B  and  F-B  until  they  meet  with  the  above  spring  hne  at  G  and  H. 
Round  off  the  top  of  the  leaf  leaving  it  slightly  pointed  at  B  as  shown.  Next  divide  the  line  A-B  into 
24  equal  parts  and  mark  off  on  it  spaces  as  follows,  beginning  at  the  bottom:  One  space  6  parts  high, 
one  5  parts,  one  4,  one  31^,  one  3,  and  the  upper  one,  2}^  parts.  Horizontal  lines  through  these  points 
locate  the  pistules  and  the  starting  points  of  each  leaf. 

This  gives  the  skeleton  layout  of  the  leaf  and  should  be  memorized  and  followed  approximately 
whenever  the  leaf  is  drawn.  Now  build  up  each  of  the  leaf  parts  according  to  Fig.  84  which  shows  four 
stages  of  the  development,  and  sketch  in  the  leaf  stalks  or  midribs  between  the  pistules. 

If  a  still  more  linished  leaf  is  desired  each  leaf  lobe  may  now  be  divided  again  into  three,  this  for 
finer  work  which  is  to  be  viewed  close  up.  For  the  average  condition  the  fourth  stage  of  Fig.  84  is 
satisfactory. 

With  this  flat  leaf  in  mind  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  lay  out  all  of  the  construction  lines  when  draw- 
ing the  leaf  curved  into  the  various  forms  with  which  the  architect  must  deal.  The  rules  will  be 
remembered  and  applied  unconsciously.  Proportions  of  the  leaf  must  of  course  be  changed  to  suit  the 
occasion. 

At  the  bottom  of  Plate  71  are  typical  examples  of  Greek  and  Roman  leaves  with  a  suggestion  as  to 
their  distinguishing  characteristics. 


"5 


PLATE    T5 


AR  riCLK  IX 

MOULDINGS 
Plate  75 

Mouldings  are  perhaps  the  most  important  of  all  the  devices  employed  by  the  architect  for  orna- 
mental purposes.  In  their  simplest  form  they  produce  bands  of  shadow  varying  in  intensity  according 
to  the  contour  of  the  moulding.  These  shadow  conil)inations  may  be  controlled  at  will  by  the  designer 
and  arc  greatly  enriched,  when  desired,  by  ornamenting  the  moulding  itself. 

On  Plate  75  arc  given  the  typical  mouldings  and  the  shadow  effect  produced  by  each  when  in  the  direct 
sunlight.  When  these  mouldings  are  entirely  in  the  shadow  of  some  other  object,  their  own  shadow 
effect  differs  from  that  shown.  This  is  because  of  the  fact  that  a  member  in  such  a  shadow  receives 
reflected  light  from  bright  surfaces  below.  Reflected  lights  may  be  considered  as  coming  in  exactly  the 
oi)posite  direction  from  the  conventional  light  ray  as  described  on  page  33.  The  effect  of  reflected 
light  may  be  seen  in  the  shaded  portions  of  the  given  mouldings. 

The  accompanying  plate  illustrates  the  t\pe  of  ornament  typical  to  each  of  the  various  moulding 
contours.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  each  case  the  ornament  echos  in  a  way  the  profile  of  the  moulding. 
Thus  the  ornamental  egg  is  similar  in  shape  to  the  Ovolo,  the  graceful  waving  leaf  to  the  Cyma,  the  bundle 
of  reeds  to  the  Torus,  etc. 

A  study  of  Plates  62  to  72  will  show  how  uninteresting  the  Orders  would  become  if  the  mouldings 
were  omitted;  it  will  also  give  the  student  some  idea  as  to  the  importance  of  mouldings  in  architectural 
design. 

The  scale  of  a  moulding,  or  the  degree  of  fineness  with  which  its  parts  are  designed,  is  largely 
dependent  upon  the  material  in  which  it  is  to  be  executed.  Thus  mouldings  in  stone  must  of  necessity  be 
bolder  than  those  in  wood.  Finer  mouldings  may  be  run  in  hard,  close-grained  woods  than  in  those  of 
coarser  texture,  and  mouldings  in  metal  may  be  designed  on  as  small  a  scale  as  desired.  The  method  of 
producing  the  moulding  must  also  be  considered  by  the  designer,  as  this  has  a  definite  bearing  on  the 
design.  A  wooden  moulding,  if  undercut,  can  not  be  made  in  one  piece  by  machinery.  When  such  a 
moulding  is  to  be  used,  it  must  be  made  in  parts,  which  is  not  desirable,  or  else  by  hand.  In  the  latter 
case  the  cost  usually  makes  its  use  impracticable.  Study  carefully  the  effects  of  light  and  shade  on  the 
many  surfaces  of  the  ornamented  mouldings. 


127 


PLATE    76 


ARCHITECTURAL 

LETTERING 


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ARTICIJ-;  X 
LETTERING 

Plates  77  to  84 

A  study  of  the  subject  of  lettering  is  important  to  the  architect  for  two  reasons.  The  first  and 
commonest  is  that  he  may  add  lo  his  drawings  necessary  information  in  the  form  of  titles,  notes  and 
dimensions,  whicli  must  he  done  in  a  rapid  legible  style,  conforming  to  the  character  of  the  drawing. 
The  second  and  more  important  reason  is  that  he  may  be  able  to  apply  it  in  correct  and  pleasing  form 
as  a  branch  of  design.  He  is  frequently  required  to  include  lettering  as  part  of  a  design  or  ornament,  to 
be  executed  in  stone  or  bronze  or  other  material.  Such  design  must  be  in  harmony  with  the  period  or 
style  of  the  architecture  and  drawn  with  reference  to  the  kind  of  material,  so  that  the  effect  produced 
by  its  execution  will  be  both  legible  and  beautiful. 

The  foundation  is  the  same  for  both  of  these  somewhat  distinct  divisions  in  the  architect's  use  of 
lettering,  and  involves  first  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  letter  forms,  then  a  study  of  their 
composition  and  grouping. 

The  lettering  on  working  drawings  is  chiefly  concerned  with  legibility  and  speed.  The  necessary 
skill  for  this  class  of  work  may  be  acquired  by  taking  up  a  single  stroke  letter  such  as  that  on  Plate  80, 
learning  the  shai)es  of  the  individual  letters  by  practicing  each  separately,  then  combining  them  into 
words  and  sentences,  following  the  rules  for  spacing  and  composition. 

Lettering  on  display  drawings  requires  more  careful  attention.  The  effectiveness  of  such  a 
drawing  mav  be  either  enhanced  or  ruined  by  the  character  of  the  lettering.  On  this  class  of  work 
the  selection  of  the  approjjriate  style,  the  placing  and  disjjlay,  and  the  execution  must  all  have 
thoughtful  study. 

For  tablets,  inscriptions  and  the  like,  to  be  carved  or  cast  or  painted  as  permanent  ornament,  there 
must  be  an  intimate  knowledge  of  historical  style  and  an  acquaintance  with  the  method  and  effect  of 
execution  in  the  material  used. 

In  the  history  and  development  of  formal  writing  and  printing  there  will  be  found  many  varied 
forms  of  alphabets.  Some  of  these  are  interesting  only  from  the  paleographical  standpoint,  others  are 
valuable  to  the  designer.  It  is  the  intention  here  to  select  from  the  latter  a  few  styles  of  particular 
application  to  architectural  work. 

The  Roman  Letter. — The  original  source  from  which  all  these  varied  forms  have  evolved  or 
descended  is  the  Roman  letter  of  the  period  of  Classic  Roman  architecture.  This  letter,  somewhat  modi- 
fied and  refined,  appears  again  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance,  and  the  general  name  Old  Roman  is  given 
to  both  Classical  Roman  and  Renaissance  Roman.  Type  based  on  it  is  called  by  the  printers  "  Roman 
oldstyle."     As  it  is  the  architect's  one  general  purpose  letter  it  should  be  given  most  careful  study. 

The  finest  existing  example  of  Classical  Roman  is  that  of  the  inscription  at  the  base  of  Trajan's 
column  (A.D.  114).  The  column  and  its  inscription  are  illustrated  on  Plate  77,  together  with  a  panel 
containng  an  alphabet  drawn  from  it.  The  letters  shown  in  outline  do  not  occur  on  the  tablet  but 
have  been  supplied  in  conforming  style  to  complete  the  alphabet. 

The  letters  /  and  J  were  not  differentiated  until  the  sixteenth  century.  Hence  in  classic  inscrip- 
tions /  is  found  used  as  J.  The  curved  U  is  also  a  later  form,  the  sharp  I'  being  used  instead  on  all 
Roman  inscriptions.  While  the  use  of  /  for  J  and  1'  for  U  has  thus  historical  sanction,  the  effect  on 
legibility  is  such  that  it  is  not  recommended  in  modern  work.     Using  V  for  U  has  been  much  in  vogue 

131 


PLATE    78 


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SECTION 

ILLINOIS  ^TATE  MONVMENT 
VICKSB\/RG  NATIONAL  MILITARY  PARK 
VlCKSBVRi^,MI55. 

JENNEY  C-  Nf/NDIE,  ARCHITECTS. 
CHICAGO.  ILL. 


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ARCmrKCTURAL  DRAWING 


among  architects,  even  on  office  drawings,  but  it  is  now  looked  upon  as  somewhat  of  an  affectation. 
On  United  States  Government  buildings  it  is  not  permitted.  The  antique  effect  is  preserved  without 
injuring  legibility  by  using  the  manuscript  form  O  as  shown  on  the  plate. 

The  Roman  letter  is  composed  of  two  weights  of  lines,  and  to  misplace  these  is  an  inexcusable  fault. 
The  rule  for  their  correct  ])lacing  may  be  remembered  easily  by  recalling  that  these  letters  were  origi- 
nally derived  from  manuscript  forms,  written  with  a  broad  nibbed  reed  pen,  consequently  in  tracing  the 
shape  of  a  letter  as  if  writing  it,  all  down  strokes  will  be  heavy  while  up  strokes  and  horizontal  strokes 
will  be  light.  Notice  that  thus  all  inclined  strokes  running  downward  from  left  to  right  are  heavy,  as 
A  M  X  r  II'  -V  I'  (Z  is  the  one  exception  to  this  rule  of  direction). 

The  old  Roman  is  a  ligJil  face  letter,  with  the  width  of  the  heavy  strokes  from  one-eighth  to  one- 
tenth  the  height  of  the  letter,  and  the  light  strokes  one-half  to  two-thirds  this  width.  A  very  important 
feature  in  its  ajipearance  is  the  serif,  or  cross-mark  at  the  end  of  each  stroke  and  the.  fillet  that  connects 
it  to  the  body  of  the  letter. 

Plates  78  and  79  give  a  working  alphabet  designed  from  Renaissance  sources,  and  drawn  to  large 
size  for  careful  study.  In  this  alphabet  the  width  of  the  stem  has  been  taken  as  one-tenth  the  height. 
To  show  proportions  each  letter  is  drawn  in  a  square  divided  into  ten  parts  in  each  direction.  In  study- 
ing these  letters  it  will  be  well  to  draw  them  in  ruled  squares  or  on  coordinate  paper,  to  a  size  at  least  as 
large  as  the  copy,  until  the  forms  and  proportions  are  very  familiar.  On  the  plates  they  have  been 
arranged  in  alphabetical  order  for  convenient  reference,  but  the  beginner  will  tind  it  best  to  study  the 
letters  in  related  groups,  starting  with  the  straight  stroke  letters  I  H  T  L  E  F.  Draw  the  outlines  of  the 
heavy  strokes  first,  follow  with  the  outlines  of  the  light  strokes,  then  draw  the  serifs  and  fillets.  The 
inclined  stroke  group  .4  K  M  N  V  W  X  Y  Z  should  then  be  taken  up,  beginning  at  the  left  side  of  each 
letter  to  sketch  the  strokes.  Observe  the  difference  in  the  radii  of  the  fillets  on  the  two  sides  of  an 
inclined  stroke  and  also  as  compared  to  the  radius  used  on  vertical  strokes.  Poorly  drawn  fillets  will 
inevitably  spoil  a  letter. 

O  QC  G  are  closely  related.  Notice  that  the  outside  curves  are  circle  arcs.  In  large  letters  these 
may  be  penciled  with  compasses,  although  all  lettering  should  be  inked  entirely  freehand.  The  inside 
curves  arc  ellipses  with  their  long  axes  tilted  at  an  angle  of  about  15  degrees  backward  from  the 
vertical.  Never  make  the  mistake  of  tilting  this  shading  the  wrong  way.  As  indicated  in  outline  the 
swash  line  of  the  Q  may  be  extended  ad  libitum  to  fit  the  composition. 

The  next  group  contains  the  letters  made  up  of  straight  lines  and  curves,  B  D  J  P  RU,  together  with 
S,  the  subtlety  of  whose  reverse  curve  is  sometimes  difficult  to  master.  Notice  that  all  the  curves  in 
these  letters  are  in  general  similar  to  the  O  group  in  that  their  outside  curves  are  circles,  whose  centers 
are  indicated,  and  the  inside  ellipses  are  tilted.  Two  forms  oi  J  RQ  and  U  are  given,  either  of  which 
may  be  used.  The  swash  line  R  is  perhaps  more  difficult.  Its  tail  should  have  a  graceful  sweep,  not 
"clubby"  on  the  end. 

The  ampersand,  "e?","  a  monogram  abbreviation  for  the  Latin  word  "d,"  is  made  in  a  variety  of 
forms,  sometimes  with  not  so  much  flourish  to  the  tail. 

While  numbers  in  Roman  inscriptions  were  always  in  Roman  numerals,  Arabic  figures  are  often 
required  in  modern  designing.  Those  given  are  of  a  character  in  keeping  with  Old  Roman  lettering. 
Note  their  comparative  height  in  proportion  to  the  letters. 


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ARCHITECTIRAL   DRAWING 


The  first  example  on  Plate  80  shows  a  variation  with  freer  treatment  than  the  forms  of  the  previous 
plates,  and  suitable  for  drawn  or  modeled  execution  rather  than  for  carved  work.  In  this  the  stems 
instead  of  having  exactly  parallel  sides  are  flared  slightly  and  the  serifs  are  not  straight  lines.  These 
variations  are  only  "the  width  of  a  line"  and  must  not  be  exaggerated,  but  it  may  be  found  interesting 
to  try  the  effect  after  a  thorough  mastery  of  the  straight  form. 

On  working  drawings  a  sint^le  stroke  letter  such  as  given  in  the  third  example  on  Plate  80  is  generally 
used.  This  letter  is  based  on  the  skeleton  of  the  Old  Roman,  having  all  its  lines  of  the  same  width,  and 
made  with  a  single  stroke  of  a  suitable  pen.  For  letters  of  the  size  of  those  in  the  example  a  ball  point 
pen  516  ¥  or  Hunt's  sholpoint  512  may  be  used.  For  smaller  sizes  a  Gillott  404  is  good.  The  letters 
should  be  kept  to  the  same  proportion  of  width  to  height  as  learned  on  Plates  78  and  79.  Top  and 
bottom  guide  lines  should  always  be  drawn  for  all  lettering,  no  matter  how  small  or  how  rapid  the  execu- 
tion. Indeed,  architects  often  pur])osely  leave  the  guide  lines  on  the  drawings  to  obscure  irregularities 
in   the  letters,  and  sometimes  even  ink  them  in  with  diluted  ink  for  the  same  purpose. 

Old  Roman  letters  should  never  be  extended  wider  than  their  normal  proportion  of  width  to  height. 
They  may  however  be  made  in  compressed  form  if  desired.  An  interesting  effect  is  secured  by  keeping 
the  round  letters  C  D  G  O  Q  full,  linking  or  conjoining  them,  while  compressing  the  other  letters.  An 
alphabet  and  example  of  composition  are  given  on  Plate  80. 

Composilioii  in  lettering  involves  the  selection  of  suitable  styles  and  sizes,  the  arrangement,  and  the 
spacing  of  letters,  words  and  lines.  Success  in  it  depends  upon  artistic  judgment  rather  than  rules. 
One  rule  however  is  important.  Letters  in  words  are  not  spaced  at  equal  distances  but  are  made  toappear 
uniform  by  keeping  the  irregularly  shaped  backgrounds  between  them  to  approximately  equal  area. 
Each  letter  is  spaced  with  reference  to  its  shape  and  the  shape  of  the  letter  preceding  it.  Thus  adjacent 
letters  with  straight  sides  would  be  spaced  farther  apart  than  those  with  curved  sides.  Sometimes 
combinations  such  as  A  7"  or  AV  may  even  overlap.  Words  should  be  separated  by  a  space  not  more 
than  the  height  of  the  letter.  The  clear  distance  between  lines  of  letters  may  vary  from  one-fourth  to 
one  and  one-half  times  the  height  of  the  letter.  Much  observation  and  practice  is  required  before  one 
is  competent  to  do  serious  work.  On  Plates  80,  81,  83  and  84  examples  of  composition  are  shown,  which 
may  be  studied  with  profit.  At  the  bottom  of  Plate  84  the  device  of  using  Roman  with  wide  letter- 
spacing  is  illustrated. 

Titles  on  architectural  drawings  vary  from  the  ordinary  box  title  of  a  working  drawing  to  carefully 
designed  compositions  on  elaborate  display  drawings.  Several  examples  are  shown  on  Plate  80.  The 
first  is  a  full  panel  title,  a  form  which  is  always  correct  and  effective.  To  the  right  of  it  is  an  informal 
title,  a  style  sometimes  used,  which  has  a  distinct  advantage  in  not  requiring  careful  preliminary  pencil- 
ing and  therefore  of  value  for  quick  sketches.  Below  these  are  two  formal  titles,  the  first  a  balanced 
title  and  the  second  an  enclosed  title. 

Working  drawing  titles  will  be  found  on  Plates  21,  31  and  others. 


137 


PLATE    82 


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ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 

In  inscrijUion  IcUering,  the  material  usually  being  of  one  rolor,  the  letter  is  read  by  the  shadow  cast 
by  its  incised  or  raised  body,  and  hence  must  be  designed  with  this  in  mind.  The  heavy  strokes  of 
letters  to  be  sunk  in  \'  form  in  stone  should  be  drawn  of  a  width  not  less  than  one-eighth  of  the  height, 
with  thin  strokes  about  two-thirds  of  this  amount.  The  word  / XCISJ'ID  on  Plate  80  shows  inscrij)tion 
letters  whose  stems  are  1  to  8.  Hronze  tablets  are  made  either  with_//a/  top  or  roiiiul  /(;y> letters.  Three 
examples  are  shown  on  Plate  81.  The  first  was  designed  by  Carrere  and  Hastings,  the  second  by 
McKim,  iMeade  &  White  and  the  third  by  the  writer.  All  were  cast  by  Jno.  Williams  Inc.,  New  York. 
The  letters  on  these  tablets  are  i  to  7'2  or  wider. 

Designs  for  execution  in  stone  or  bronze  should  be  made  as  full  size  details  on  tracing  paper.  P'or 
bronze  castings  allow  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in  10  inches  for  shrinkage. 

Uncial  and  Gothic. — These  two  historical  styles  of  letters  will  be  needed  occasionally  both  in  office 
lettering  and  lettering  in  design.  They  may  be  found  appropriate  in  putting  the  titles  on  the  display 
drawing  of  a  Gothic  structure,  or  in  designing  the  inscription  for  a  piece  of  ecclesiastical  work. 

These  letters  de\'eloped  as  manuscrij)t  forms,  written  with  single  strokes  of  a  broad  pen.  The  word 
Uncial,  stricth'  speaking,  refers  to  the  rounded  form  of  the  early  centuries  of  the  Christian  era,  descend- 
ing directly  from  the  Roman,  but  the  term  as  used  by  designers  covers  the  later  developments  from  it  of 
built  up  or  drawn  capitals,  particularly  the  Lombardic.  They  are  sometimes  used  in  all  capitals, 
although  not  easily  read  when  used  in  this  form.  Their  chief  value  is  as  initials  in  connection  with 
Gothic  lower-case. 

When  used  in  carved  work  these  letters  are  much  more  effective  raised  with  flat  top  than  sunk. 
They  should  never  be  sunk  in  V  shape.  They  lend  themselves  well  to  etched  brass  work,  either  raised 
and  polished  on  oxidized  background,  or  sunk  and  enameled.  When  done  in  the  latter  method  the 
initials  and  ornament  are  often  rubricated. 

Gothic  capitals  are  more  complicated  in  form  than  Uncials,  and  generally  not  so  good  in  design. 
The  letter  known  as  Old  English  is  to  the  general  reader  the  most  familiar  form  of  Gothic.  A  definite 
rule  may  be  given: — Xrcer  use  all  caps  in  Gothic. 

Gothic  lower-case  changes  from  the  round  Gothic  of  the  tenth  century  to  the  pointed  Gothic  of  the 
twelfth  to  fifteenth.  As  a  written  letter  it  is  made  with  a  broad  pen  turned  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees. 
Large  letters  may  be  drawn  in  outline  and  filled  in,  or,  by  a  skillful  draftsman,  may  be  made  in  single 
stroke  with  a  flat  brush.     The  one  recjuirement  in  Gothic  lower-case  is  to  keep  letters  close  together. 


141 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Plate  82  gives  two  Uncial  (Lombardic)  alphabets.  The  first  is  of  simple  form  suitable  for  inscrip- 
tions, and  is  drawn  of  a  size  sufficiently  large  to  show  its  proportions.  The  width  of  the  stem  here  is 
one-sixth  of  the  height,  thus  the  construction  square  is  div'ided  into  six  parts  each  waw  The  second  is  a 
pen-drawn  form  with  some  of  the  freedom  of  the  medieval  scribe  indicated.  It  would  be  suitable  for 
painting  or  illuminating  rather  than  carving. 

Plate  83  gives  an  alphabet  of  Gothic  capitals  and  corresponding  lower-case,  adaptable  for  carved 
work.  Below  this  is  a  round,  written  form  of  Gothic  lower-case,  which  may  be  made  in  single  stroke 
with  broad  pen  or  flat  brush.  The  pen-drawn  Uncials  of  Plate  82  should  be  used  as  capitals  with  this 
alphabet.     An  example  of  Gothic  title  by  Bertram  G.  Goodhue  is  shown  at  the  bottom  of  the  plate. 

Plate  84  is  a  slant  or  italic  form  known  as  French  Script.  It  is  effective  for  graceful,  fanciful  effects, 
but  the  beginner  should  be  reminded  in  advance  that  it  is  difficult  of  successful  execution. 


142 


OUTLINE  OF  STUDY 

Plate  76 

This  out  lino  will  be  of  most  value  to  the  student  who  is  working  without  the  assistance  of  an  in- 
structor Inil  will  he  found  useful  to  the  teacher  as  well,  in  laying  out  the  work  for  his  classes. 

When  the  subjects  are  taken  up  in  class,  their  order  may  be  changed  entirely  from  the  outline  or, 
if  the  following  order  is  used,  the  sequence  of  drawings  in  each  part  may  be  varied  to  a  certain  extent. 

The  student  who  is  working  alone  is  usually  at  a  loss  to  know  just  how  to  attack  a  problem  or  how 
to  decide  the  order  in  which  each  part  of  the  study  should  be  made.  The  beginner  is  advised  against 
the  outright  copying  of  the  drawings  of  this  book  except  in  the  preliminary  work  and  perhaps  the  details 
of  windows,  doors,  etc.  It  will  be  much  better  to  use  them  as  a  general  guide  and  to  make  the  practice 
sheets  somewhat  ditTerent. 

The  work  is  di\ided  into  Parts  and  under  each  Part  may  be  taken  up  as  many  drawings  as  desired. 
Enough  should  be  done  in  each  division  to  insure  a  thorough  understanding  of  that  particular  step  and 
it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  proceed  to  the  next  Part  until  this  mental  grasp  is  secured. 

Bear  this  in  mind :  The  draunngs  themselves  will  be  of  no  value.  It  is  only  what  the  student  learns  while 
maki>ii^  them  that  will  he  worth  while. 

Preparation. — Obtain  a  complete  drawing  outfit  as  described  on  pages  9  and  10.  Saw  a  36-inch  roll 
of  tracing  paper  into  two  lengths  of  24  and  12  inches  each,  these  being  convenient  sizes  for  the  following 
problems.  Buy  a  few  yards  of  heavy  detail  paper,  cut  a  piece  the  size  of  the  board  and  fasten  it  down 
with  thumb  tacks.  This  gives  a  smooth  surface  over  which  to  draw  even  after  the  board  has  become 
pitted  with  thumb  tack  holes,  and  is  easih'  renewed  whenever  necessary. 

Sheet  Size. — The  practice  sheets  may  of  course  be  any  size  but  a  13  by  18  inch  sheet  is  a  good  size 
with  which  to  begin.  On  a  piece  of  paper  slightly  larger  than  the  finished  sheet  is  to  be,  draw  the  outline 
or  cutting  line  of  the  sheet.  Keep  thumb  tack  holes,  figuring,  trial  lines,  etc.,  outside  this  line  so  that, 
after  completing  the  drawing,  it  may  be  trimmed  along  the  line  and  a  neatly  fmished  sheet  will  result. 
Next  draw  a  border  line  around  the  sheet  ji  inch  inside  the  cutting  line.  One  of  the  title  spaces  sug- 
gested in  the  article  on  Lettering  may  now  be  added  if  desired  but  this  is  not  necessary  at  present.  The 
first  few  sheets  may  be  laid  out  on  detail  paper  and  the  tracing  paper  used  as  suggested  later. 

Part  One. — To  become  acquainted  with  the  instruments,  Plate  3,  and  their  use,  no  better  exercise 
can  be  found  than  the  drawing  of  a  few  of  the  geometric  solutions  on  Plates  4  and  5.  Divide  the  sheet 
inside  the  border  line  into  four  equal  parts  by  light  lines  and  in  each  space  draw  one  solution  as  large 
as  the  space  will  permit.  It  might  be  well  to  draw  eight  of  these  geometric  solutions  or  at  least  until 
one  is  familiar  with  the  instruments.  Bear  in  mind  during  this  practice  that  the  object  is  to  know  the 
instruments  and  to  learn  to  work  with  greatest  accuracy. 

Part  Two. — The  draftsman  can  acquire  the  abihty  to  letter  well  only  by  long  continued  and  careful 
practice.  Since  skill  in  lettering  is  so  important  a  part  of  the  architectural  draftsman's  ecjuipment.  he 
should  begin  early  in  his  study  of  the  letter  forms  and  composition,  that  he  may  acquire  this  practice 
as  he  works  along  in  the  other  departments  of  the  subject.  Every  sheet  must  be  made  a  lettering  exer- 
cise by  carefully  considering  each  letter,  word  and  figure  as  it  is  drawn.     Thus  alone  can  be  gained  the 

14.? 


ARCHITECTUR.\L   DRAWING 

desired  proficiency  in  presenting  the  many  dimensions,  notes  and  titles  which  must  be  used  on  architec- 
tural work.  It  will  not  be  necessary  at  this  time  to  make  an  exhaustive  study  of  lettering  but  the  single 
stroke  Old  Roman  letters  and  figures  of  Plate  80  and  something  about  composition  of  letters  should  be 
learned  before  drawing  the  first  plan. 

On  the  first  lettering  sheet  rule  very  lightly,  with  a  sharp  pencil,  a  number  of  guide  lines  as  suggested 
in  the  article  on  Lettering,  then  practice  the  single  stroke  letters  and  figures,  studying  each  carefully. 
Repeat  them  until  they  may  be  made  with  reasonable  accuracy  and  speed.  Draw  also  a  few  dimension 
lines  and  arrows  as  shown  on  the  drawings  of  Plates  21  to  30  noticing  the  form  and  proportions  of  the 
arrows. 

Part  Three. — On  Plate  76  are  several  plans  and  elevations  which  have  been  sketched  freehand  and 
are  not  drawn  to  any  definite  scale.  The  simplest  one  of  these  may  now  be  drawn  at  a  scale  of  14"  = 
i'  —  o"  and  dimensioned.  Lay  out  a  13  by  18  inch  sheet  as  before  and  after  consulting  the  article 
on  Scale  Dra\nngs  and  studying  Plate  22  draw  up  and  dimension  the  plan.  This  sheet  should  be  kept 
quite  simple  and,  at  its  completion,  the  draftsman  should  have  accjuired  an  elementary  knowledge  of 
plan  svmbols,  drawing  and  dimensioning.  Frequent  reference  to  the  te.xt  and  plates  is  absolutely 
essential  to  gain  the  most  from  this  sheet. 

Part  Four. — Fasten  a  sheet  of  tracing  paper  over  the  first  floor  plan  which  has  just  been  completed 
and  draw  the  plan  of  the  second  floor.  This  involves  more  than  is  at  first  apparent.  A  preliminary 
study  of  the  layout  of  stairways  must  be  made  so  that  the  stair  of  the  second  floor  plan  will  tie  up  with 
that  of  the  first  floor  plan.  Other  stair  drawings  will  be  made  later  but  a  diagrammatic  section  should  now 
be  made  similar  to  that  on  Plate  59.  This  will  aid  in  determining  the  number  and  location  of  risers  and 
treads,  which  information  is  necessary  in  preparing  the  plan.  The  basement  plan  would  ordinarily  be 
drawn  next,  but  it  would  illustrate  the  same  points  as  the  other  two  plans  and  so  may  be  omitted  as  a 
practice  sheet  if  desired. 

Part  Five. — Working  on  tracing  paper  over  the  plans,  lay  out  the  front  elevation,  then  a  side  eleva- 
tion as  suggested  by  the  sketch,  Plate  76.  These  drawings  will  necessitate  a  study  of  elevations  on  page 
50,  a  careful  look  at  Plates  21  to  30  and  at  the  window  elevations  on  the  detail  plates.  Before  attempt- 
ing these  two  sheets,  read  again  the  articles  on  scale  drawings  and  dimensioning  and,  if  possible,  look 
at  a  number  of  residence  elevations  in  the  architectural  magazines.  Constant  reference  should  be  made 
to  these  helps  as  the  work  progresses.  The  drawing  of  a  wall  section  as  described  on  page  50  should  be 
studied  carefully  in  connection  with  these  sheets. 

Part  Six. — A  scale  detail  of  a  part  of  the  elevation  may  now  be  made  at  ^i"  =  i'  —  o".  Select 
an  interesting  portion  such  as  that  containing  the  main  entrance  or  an  equally  good  subject.  This 
should  present  about  the  information  that  is  given  on  Plate  28  or  the  Breakfast  Bay  of  Plate  29.  Study 
closely  these  plates  and  the  article  on  page  51. 


144 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


Part  Seven. — Work  out  a  t>pical  double-hung  or  casement  window  detail  depending  on  which  type 
is  used  in  the  house.  Study  the  notes  accom])anying  the  detail  and  try  to  commit  the  drawing  to  mem- 
ory as  the  work  is  done.  This  sheet  should  contain  drawings  made  at  two  dilTerent  scales.  Draw  an 
elevation  (half  outside  and  half  inside)  similar  to  that  on  Plate  49  and,  beside  it,  a  complete  vertical 
section.  Below  the  elevation  draw  a  complete  horizontal  section  or  plan.  These  three  drawings  should 
be  made  at  a  scale  of  -Ki"  =  i'  =  o".  The  larger  detailed  sections  should  be  made  at  a  scale  of  3"  = 
i'  -  o". 

Part  Eight. — Details  of  the  interior  are  next  in  order.  They  should  be  drawn  at  a  scale  of  j^"  = 
i'  —  o"  with  larger  scale  and  sometimes  full-size  sections  of  the  parts  where  needed.  An  excellent 
exercise  here  would  be  to  draw  the  plan  of  a  kitchen  conforming  with  the  requirements  of  the  Kitchen 
Score  Card  of  page  17.  Study  also  Plate  30  and  the  text.  After  the  plan  is  drawn,  work  out  details 
of  the  cu])boards,  etc.,  at  the  scale  desired. 

Part  Nine. — .'\fter  having  secured  a  reasonable  mastery  of  the  drawings  necessary  for  a  simple 
residence,  the  student  might  proceed  with  one  more  complicated  or  of  a  different  material  and  detail. 
Another  valuable  exercise  at  this  time  would  be  to  measure  up  a  simple  residence  and  make  a  set  of 
drawings  of  it.     This  must  be  done  whenever  extensive  remodeling  is  to  be  undertaken. 

Part  Ten. — The  jMctorial  methods  might  well  be  taken  up  next,  particularly  perspective.  .A.fter  a 
study  of  the  method,  a  perspective  of  the  house  previously  drawn  might  be  made. 

Part  Eleven. — A  study  of  the  Orders  of  Architecture  would  now  give  the  student  a  knowledge  of 
the  details  of  more  jiretentious  buildings.  A  drawing  should  be  made  of  each  Order  and  its  principal 
proportions  committed  to  memory.  These  drawings  should  be  done  on  water-color  paper  as  they  make 
ideal  subjects  for  practice  in  rendering  the  shades  and  shadows.  Use  Whatman's  cold  pressed  paper, 
Imperial  size,  for  this  pur]:)ose.  On  each  sheet  draw  the  complete  Order  at  a  small  scale  and  at  as  large 
a  scale  as  possible  draw  the  entablature,  column  capital,  and  base  (leaving  out  a  section  of  the  shaft), 
and  the  pedestal.  Plate  17,  which  is  an  example  of  student  work,  will  give  an  idea  as  to  how  the  sheet 
may  be  laid  out  and  a  suggestion  for  a  background.  The  student  may  use  his  ingenuity  here  to  produce 
a  great  variety  of  interesting  backgrounds.  In  connection  with  a  study  of  the  Orders  should  come  a 
practice  sheet  of  the  Acanthus  Leaf  as  described  on  page  125  and  Plate  74,  and  some  attention  to  the 
Mouldings  of  page  127  and  Plate  75. 

Part  Twelve. — The  subject  of  Shades  and  Shadows,  page  ^^,  might  be  studied  now  and  as  many 
sheets  devoted  to  its  application  as  the  student  sees  fit.  On  the  first  sheet  draw  and  work  out  the  shad- 
ows of  a  few  simple  block  combinations,  making  use  of  the  fundamentals  as  suggested  on  Plate  13.  .\fter 
these  are  understood,  a  more  complicated  object  such  as  that  of  Plate  14,  might  be  considered. 
The  Orders  of  Architecture  then  make  excellent  subjects,  for  further  study  and  practice. 

Part  Thirteen.— Having  drawn  the  shadows  of  a  few  objects,  the  next  subject  for  attention  is 
Rendering.  Study  the  text,  pages  43  and  45,  and  follow  the  instructions  there  given  as  to  the  first  prac- 
tice sheet  which  is  illustrated  on  Plate  18.  Here,  again,  the  Orders  will  serve  as  practice  exercises  if 
desired  after  which  the  student  may  choose  such  further  subjects  as  he  may  fancy. 


145 


REFERENCE  BOOKS 

The  piihlishcrs  iire  named  at  Ihc  end  of  tlic  lisl. 


ACOUSTICS 

Acoustics  of  Audiloriums. 
by  F.  R.  Watson. 

ARCHITPXTURAL  EQUIPMENT 

Sweet's  Catalogue.     (An  extensive  catalogue  of  architec- 
tural equipment  and  manufacturers.) 
by  Sweet's  Catalogue  Service,  Inc.,  New  York. 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  SUPER- 
INTENDENCE 

Building  Construction  and  Superintendence.^ 

by  !•".  E.  Kidder. 

Part  I.     Masonry  and  Plastering. 
Part  II.     Carpenter  Work. 
Part  III.     Trussed  Roofs  and  Roof  Trusses. 
Elements  of  Structures.'' 

by  George  A.  Hool. 
Framed  Structures  and  Girders.' 

by  Edgar  Marburg. 
Strength  of  Materials.' 

by  James  E.  Boyd. 
Designing  and  Detailing  of  Simple  Steel  Structures.' 

by  Clyde  T.  Morris. 
Architectural  Engineering.'* 

by  J.  K.  Freitag. 
Reinforced  Concrete.' 

by  Buel  and  Hill. 
Concrete  Engineers'  Handbook.' 

by  Hool  and  Johnson. 
Architectural    Terra    Cotta.''     (Standard    Construction.) 

by  National  Terra  Cotta  Society,  New  York. 

DESIGN 

Architectural  Composition.^ 

by  John  Beverly  Robinson. 
The  Honest  House.'     (Small  House  Design.) 

by  Ruby  Ross  Goodnow. 
Elements  of  Classic  Architecture.'     (French.) 

by  Gromort. 
Indication  in  Architectural  Design.^ 

by  David  J.  Varon. 


Classic  and  Renaissance  Architecture.' 

by  Joseph  Btihlman. 
Church  Building." 

by  Ralph  Adams  Cram. 
Lessons  in  Decorative  Design.'" 

by  Jackson. 
City  Planning." 

by  Charles  Mulford  Robinson. 

DETAn.S 

Building  Details.'^     (Portfolios.) 

by  Frank  M.  Snyder. 
Architectural  Terra  Cotta.*     (Standard  Construction.) 

by  National  Terra  Cotta  Society,  New  York. 

DICTIONARY 

Dictionary  of  .Architecture  and  Building." 
by  Russell  Sturgis. 

MECHANICAL  EQUIPMENT 

Condensed  Catalogues  of  Mechanical  Equipment  with  a 
General  Classified  Directory.  The  American 
Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  New  York. 

Chemical  Engineering  Catalogue.  (Chemical  Machinery 
and  Supplies.)  The  Chemical  Catalogue  Com- 
pany, Inc.,  I  Madison  Ave.,  New  York. 

DRAWING 

Engineering  Drawing.'     (A  complete  elementary  treatise 
on  orthographic  projection  drawing.) 
by  Thomas  E.  French. 
Machine  Drawing.^ 

by  Carl  L.  Svensen. 
Figure  Drawing.'" 
by  Hatton. 

ESTIMATING 

Contractors'  and  Builders'  Handbook.''' 
by  William  Arthur. 

FIREPROOFING 

The  Fireproofing  of  Steel  Buildings.'' 
by  J.  K.  Freitag. 


147 


ARCHITECTrR.\L  DRAWING 


HANDBOOKS 

The  Architects'  and  Builders'  Pocket  Book.^ 

by  F.  E.  Kidder. 
The  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket  Book.'= 

by  J.  C.  Trautwine. 
Mechanical  Engineers'  Handbook.^ 

by  Lionel  S.  Marks. 
The  ^Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket  Book.^ 

by  Wm.  Kent. 
American  Electricians'  Handbook.^ 

by  Terrell  Croft. 
Handbook  for  Electrical  Engineers.^ 

by  Harold  Pender. 
Cambria  Steel. 

by  Cambria  Steel  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 
Carnegie  Steel  Companies'  Pocket  Companion. 

by  Carnegie  Steel  Company.  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

HEATING 

Hot  Water  Heating  and  Fitting.' 
by  Wm.  J.  Baldwin. 


HISTORY 


General.- 


—  History  of  Architecture.'^ 
by  Banister  Fletcher. 
History  of  Architectural  Development.'* 

by  F.  M.  Simpson. 
History  of  Architecture. '^ 

by  Russell  Sturgis. 
History  of  .Architecture.'* 
by  James  Ferguson. 
Classic. — The  Architecture  of  Greece  and  Rome." 

by  W.  J.  Anderson  and  R.  Phen6  Spiers. 
English. — Gothic  Architecture  in  England.'-' 
by  Francis  Bond. 
Later  Renaissance  .Architecture  in  England." 
by  John  Belcher  and  M.  E.  Macartney. 
History     of     Renaissance     Architecture     in 
England.-" 
by  R.  T.  Blomfn-ld. 
Classic    Architecture    in    Great    Britain    and 
Ireland,    During    the    Eighteenth    anri 
Nineteenth  Centuries." 
by  A.  Richardson. 
FRENCn.— The  Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  France.'" 
by  W.  H.  W^ard. 
Medieval  Archi lecture." 
by  A.  Kingsley  Porter. 
Italian. — The  Architecture  of  the  Renaissance  in  Italy.'" 
by  W.  J.  Anderson. 
History  of  Architecture  in  Italy. 2' 
by  C.  A.  Cummins. 


Spanish. — Renaissance    Architecture    and    Ornament  in 
Spain. '^ 
by  A.  N.  Prentice. 
C0LONI.A.L. — The    Georgian    Period.     (.A    series   of   port- 
folios). 
by    The    American    .Architect    and 
Building  News   Company,   Boston. 
The  Colonial  Homes  of  Philadelphia  and  Its 
Neighborhood.'" 
by  H.  D.  Eberline. 

ILLUMINATION 

The  Art  of  Illumination.' 

by  Louis  Bell. 
Electric  Light  Wiring.' 

by  C.  E.  Kno.x. 
Practical  Illumination.' 

by  J.  R.  Cravath  and  V.  R.  Lansingh. 
Radiation,  Light  and  Illumination.' 

by  Charles  P.  Steinmetz. 

LAW 

Architect,  Owner  and  Builder  Before  the  Law." 
by  T.  M.  Clark. 

LETTERING 

The  Alphabet.''' 

by  F.  W.  Goudy. 
Lettering." 

by  Thomas  Wood  Stevens. 
Letters  and  Lettering.'-^- 

by  Frank  Chouteau  Brown. 
The  Essentials  of  Lettering.' 

by  French  and  Meiklejohn. 

ORDERS  OF  ARCHITECTURE 

The  Greek  and  Roman  Orders.-' 

by  Mauch. 
Elements  of  .Architecture.-'' 

by  Pierre  Esquie. 
Fragments  d'Architecture  Antique." 

by  H.  d'Espouy. 
Vignola.* 

by  Arthur  L.  Tuckerman. 

ORNAMENT 

The  Evolution  of  An  hiteclural  Ornament.'" 

by  Middleton. 
Styles  of  Ornament.'-' 

by  Alexander  Spcllz. 
Handbook  of  Ornament.'' 

bv  F.  S.  Mever. 


148 


ARCHITECTURAL  DRAWING 


The  Art  of  Color  Decoration.'" 

by  J.  D.  Grace. 
Garden  Ornament. '•■■ 

by  Gertrude  Jekyll. 

PAINTING 

The  Analysis  of  Paints  ami  Painting  Materials.' 
by  Henry  A.  Gardner  and 
John  .-K.  SchaefTer. 

PERSPECTIVE 

Perspective.     2nd  ed." 

by  Lubschoz. 
Applied  I'ers[)ective.-' 

by  Lonjifellow. 
Handbook  of  Persi)ective." 

by  Otto  Fuchs. 
Modern  Perspective.''' 

bv  Wm.  R.  Ware. 


PIPING 

A  Handbook  on  Piping." 
by  Carl  L.  Svensen. 

PLUMBING 

Principles  and  Practice  of  Plumbing.^' 

by  J.  J.  Cosgro\e. 
Plumbers',  Steam  Filters'  and  Tinners'  Handbook.^ 

by  H.  G.  Richey. 

RENDERING 

Architectural  Rendering  in  Wash.'" 

by  McGonigle. 
Architectural  Sketching  and  Drawing  in  Perspective." 

by  H.  W.  Roberts. 
Pen  Drawing. ^^ 

by  Maginnis. 
Architectural  and  Decorative  Drawings. ^^     (Examples  of 
pen  and  ink  rendering.) 

by  Bertram  Grosvenor  Goodhue. 
Coaching  Days  and  Coaching  Ways."     (Examples  of  pen 
rendering.) 

by  W.  Outram  Tristram. 
Indication  in  Architectural  Design.'' 

by  David  J.  Varon. 
Pencil  Points  (magazine).     (Examples  of  pencil  and  wash 
rendering.) 

by  The  Pencil  Points  Press  Inc.,  New  York. 
Light  and  Shade  and  Their  Applications.' 

by  M.  Luckiesh. 
A  Collection  of  Color  Prints.' 

by   Jules  Guerin  and  Maxfield  Parish. 


Water  CoU)r  Painting.'" 

by  Rich. 
Pencil  Sketching.''" 

by  Harry  'W.  Jacobs. 
Architectural  Rendering  in  Pen  and  Tnk.^° 

by  Frank  Allison  Hays. 
Fragments  d'  Architecture  Antique.-^ 

by  H.  d'Espouy. 

SHADES  AND  SHADOWS 

Shades  and  Shadows.-'^ 

by  Henry  McGoodwin. 

WATERPROOFING 

Modern  Methods  of  Waterproofing.' 
by  Myron  H.  Lewis. 

CURRENT  ARCHITECTURAL  MAGAZINES 

Pencil  Points 

The  Pencil  Points  Press,  Inc.,  New  York. 
Architectural  Record 

The  Architectural  Record  Co.,   115-iic;  West  40th 
St.,  New  York. 
Architectural  Forum 

Rogers  and  Manson  Co.,  142  Berkeley  St.,  Boston, 
Mass. 
American  Architect  &"  Architectural  Review 

The  Architectural  &  Building  Press  Inc.,  Stamford, 
Conn. 
American  Institute  of  Architects,  Journal  of 

Am.  Inst,  of  Architects  Press  Inc.,  313  East  23rd  St., 
New  York. 
Architecture 

Charles    Scribner's    Sons,    597-599    Fifth    Avenue, 
New  York. 
White  Pine  Series  of  Architectural  Monographs 

Russell   F.   Whitehead,   132   Madison  Avenue,  New 
York. 

PUBLISHERS 

1.  Urbana,  University  of  Illinois. 

2.  New  York,  The  William  T.  Comstock  Company. 

3.  New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  370  Seventh 

Avenue. 

4.  New  York,  John  Wiley  and  Sons. 

5.  New  York,  National  Terra  Colta  Society. 

6.  New  York,  D.  Van  Nostrand  Company,  8  Warren 

Street. 

7.  New  York,  The  Century  Company. 

8.  Paris,  A.  Vincent. 

9.  New  York,  Bruno  Hessling. 

10.  Phibuklphia,  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Washington 

Square. 

11.  New  York,  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons. 


149 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


12.  New  York,  Frank  M.  Snyder. 

13.  New  York,  The  Macmillan  Company. 

14.  New  York,  David  Williams  Company. 

15.  New  York,  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 

16.  New  York,  Longmans,  Green  and  Company. 

17.  New  York,  The  Baker  Taylor  Company. 

18.  London,  J.  Murray. 

19.  London,  B.  T.  Batsford. 

20.  London,  G.  Bell  and  Sons. 

21.  New  York,  Houghton.  Mifflin  and  Company. 

22.  Boston,  Bates  and  Guild  Company. 

23.  Washington,  D.  C,  The  Reprint  Company  Inc. 


24.  Cleveland,  J.  H.  Jansen,  Ca.^ton  Bldg. 

25.  Paris,  Charles  Schmid,  51  Rue  des  Ecoles. 

26.  New    York,     The     Architectural     Book     Publishing 

Company. 

27.  Boston,  Ginn  and  Company. 

28.  Pittsburgh,  Standard  Sanitary  Mfg.  Company. 

29.  New  York,  The  Pencil  Points  Press  Inc. 

30.  New  York,  Scott  Foresman  and  Company. 

31.  Boston,  Small,  Maynard  and  Company. 

32.  Philadelphia,  Trautwine  Company. 
SS-  New  York,  The  Prang  Company. 
34.  New  York,  Mitchell  Kennerly. 


ISO 


ARCHITECTURAL  AND   BUILDING  TERMS 


Abacus.  The  to|)niosi  (li\ision  ol  tlu'  capiial  of  a 
column.     See  Plate  63. 

Abutment  of  an  Arch.  The  mass  of  masonry  which 
resists  ihc  llirusi  of  the  arch.  That  against  which  the 
ends  of  the  arch  rest. 

Aisle.  The  side  portion  of  a  building,  separated  from 
the  center  portion  usually  by  columns  or  piers. 

Angle  Iron.  A  structural  iron  shape  whose  cross  sec- 
tion is  in  the  form  of  a  letter  L. 

Annulets.  The  band  of  small  mouldings  at  the  bottom 
of  the  Echinus  of  the  Greek  Doric  capital.     See  Plate  64. 

Antae.     A  pilaster  attached  to  a  wall. 

Apron.  The  finished  board  placed  immediately  below 
a  window  stool.     See  Plate  49. 

Arcade.     A  series  of  arches. 

Architect's  Scale.     See  page  9  and  Plate  3. 

Architrave  of  a  Door  or  Window.  The  moulded  finish 
around  the  opening. 

Architrave  of  an  Entablature.  The  lower  division  of 
the  entablature.     See  Plate  63. 

Arris.  The  edge  formed  by  the  intersecting  of  two 
surfaces. 

Ashlar.     The  outside  cut  stone  facing  of  a  wall. 

Astragal.  A  small  moulding  of  circular  section.  See 
column  capital  of  Plate  63.  .\lso  the  moulding  separating 
two  doors,  etc.     See  the  sliding  door  of  Plate  52. 

Attic.  That  part  of  a  classic  structure  that  occurs 
above  the  cornice  level.  Also  the  space  immediately 
under  the  roof  of  a  house. 

Back-band.  The  outside  member  of  a  window  or  door 
casing.     See  Plate  49. 

Back  Hearth.  That  part  of  the  hearth  inside  the  fire- 
place.    See  Plate  61. 

Backing.     The  inner  [)orlion  of  a  wall. 

Balcony.  A  platform  projecting  from  the  building 
wall. 

Balloon  Frame.     See  Plate  46. 

Base.     The  lower  member  of  a  column  or  a  building. 

Base  Board.  The  finishing  board  covering  the  plaster 
wall  where  it  meets  the  floor. 

Batten.  A  strip  of  board  for  use  in  fastening  other 
boarfls  together. 

Batter.  The  slope  of  the  face  of  a  wall  that  is  not 
plumb.     See  Plate  37. 

Batter  Boards.  Boards  set  up  at  the  corners  of  a  pro- 
posed building  from  which  are  stretched  the  lines  mark- 
ing off  the  walls,  etc. 


Bay.  A  comparatively  small  projecting  portion  of  a 
building.  Also  one  division  of  an  arcade  or  the  space 
between  two  columns. 

Beam.  A  large  horizontal  structural  member  support- 
ing lloors,  etc. 

Bond.  The  connection  between  the  bricks  or  stones 
of  a  masonry  wall  formed  by  overlapping  the  pieces. 

Box  Frame.  A  window  frame  containing  boxes  for  the 
sash  weights.     See  Plate  49. 

Bridging.  A  cross-bracing  built  between  joist  and  studs 
to  add  stiffness  to  floors  and  walls. 

Building  Line. — The  line  of  the  outside  face  of  a  building 
wall.  Also  the  line  on  a  lot  beyond  which  the  law  forbids 
that  a  building  be  erected. 

Building  Paper.  A  heavy,  more  or  less  waterproof 
paper  for  use  in  insulating  the  walls,  floors  and  roofs  of 
buildings. 

Buttress.  An  enlargement  or  projection  of  a  wall  to 
resist  the  thrust  of  an  arch,  etc. 

Butts.  Hinges  designed  to  be  screwed  to  the  edge 
or  butt  of  a  door  or  window  and  the  inside  of  the 
frame. 

Camber.  The  convex  curve  of  the  edge  of  a  joist  or 
other  member. 

Carriage.  The  framing  timber  which  is  the  direct 
support  of  the  stair  steps.     See  Plate  59. 

Casement.  A  window  whose  frame  is  hinged  at  the 
side  to  swing  out  or  in.     See  Plate  51. 

Catch  Basin. — A  simple  cast  iron  or  cement  receptacle 
into  which  the  water  from  a  roof,  area  way,  etc.,  will 
drain.     It  is  connected  with  a  sewer  or  tile  drain. 

CaulicoU.  The  stalks  which  spring  from  the  second 
row  of  leaves  of  the  Corinthian  capital  and  extend  up  to 
form  the  volutes  under  the  corners  of  the  abacus. 

Centering.  The  false  work  upon  which  is  built  masonry 
arches,  concrete  slabs,  etc.  In  concrete  work  the  centering 
is  also  known  as  the  forms. 

Channel.     A  structural  steel  shape. 

Client.  The  employer  of  the  architect.  The  owner 
who  entrusts  the  carrying  out  of  his  building  project  to 
the  designer  and  engineer. 

Cofifer.  A  deeply  recessed  panel,  usually  in  a  ceiling 
or  dome. 

Collar  Beam.  A  horizontal  timber  lieing  two  opposite 
rafters  together  at  a  more  or  less  central  point  of  the 
rafters. 

Colonnade.     A  coiuinuous  series  of  columns. 


151 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


Console.  A  supporting  bracket  usually  ornamented 
by  a  re\erse  scroll. 

Compasses.     An  instrument  for  drawing  circles. 

Coped  Joint.  A  joint  between  moulded  pieces  in 
which  a  portion  of  one  member  is  cut  out  to  receive  the 
moulded  part  of  the  other  member. 

Corbel.  A  bracket  formed  on  a  wall  by  building  out 
successive  courses  of  masonry. 

Comer  Bead.  A  metal  bead  to  be  built  into  plaster 
corners  to  prevent  accidental  breaking  off  of  the  plaster. 

Cornice.  The  part  of  a  roof  which  projects  beyond  the 
wall.  The  upper  main  division  of  a  classic  entablature. 
See  Plate  63. 

Corona.  The  plane  center  member  of  a  classic  cornice. 
See  Plate  63. 

Court.  An  open  space  surrounded  partly  or  entirely 
by  a  building. 

Cresting.  The  ornamental  finish  of  a  roof  ridge  or  the 
top  of  a  wall. 

Cupola.  .\  small  cylindrical  or  polygonal  structure  on 
the  top  of  a  dome. 

Curtain  Wall.  A  thin  wall  supported  independent  of 
the  wall  below,  every  one  or  two  stories,  by  the  structural 
steel  or  concrete  frame  of  the  building. 

Cyma.     One  form  of  a  moulding.     See  Plate  75. 

Cymatium.  The  name  given  to  a  cyma  moulding  when 
it  is  used  as  a  crowning  moulding. 

Dentils.  Rectangular  supporting  blocks  beneath  the 
cornice  of  an  entablature.     See  Plate  66. 

Diaper.     An  over-all  decorative  i)attern. 

Die.  The  plane  center  member  of  a  pedestal.  When 
continu<)u>  it  is  called  a  Podium.     See  Plate  62. 

Dividers.  .Xn  instrument  for  stepping  off  equal  divisions. 
See  Plate  3. 

Dormer.  A  structure  projecting  from  a  sloping  roof, 
usually  to  accommodate  a  window.     See  Plates  24  and 

25- 

Drain.  A  means  of  carrying  off  waste  water.  See 
also  House  Drain. 

Drip  Mould.  A  moulding  designed  to  prevent  rain 
water  from  running  clown  the  face  of  a  wall;  used  also  to 
protect  the  bottom  of  floors,  windows,  etc.,  from  leakage. 

Echinus.  The  half-round  moulded  part  of  a  column 
ca[)ilal  directly  below  the  abacus. 

Elevations.  Drawings  of  the  walls  of  a  building,  usu- 
ally made  as  though  the  observer  were  looking  straight  at 
the  wall.     See  fiage  7  and  Plate  2. 

Escutcheon  Plate.  The  protective  metal  plate  at  a 
keyhole.  .Sometimes  merely  an  ornamental  plate  around 
an  o[)ening. 

Extrados.  '!  Ik-  name  applied  in  ihc  upper  or  outside 
curving  line  of  an  ar(  li. 

Face  Brick.  Csually  a  special  brick  used  for  "facing" 
a  wall. 


Fenestration.  The  distribution  or  arrangement  of 
windows  in  a  wall. 

Finial.  The  ornamental  termination  of  a  pinnacle, 
consisting  of  leaf  forms,  etc. 

Flange.  The  upper  and  lower  cross  parts  of  a  steel  I 
beam  or  channel.     A  projecting  rib. 

Flashing.  The  sheet  metal  work  to  prevent  leakage 
over  windows,  doors,  etc.,  and  around  chimneys  and  at 
other  roof  details. 

Floor  Plan.  The  horizontal  section  through  a  building 
showing  size  and  location  of  rooms,  also  doors,  windows, 
etc.,  in  the  walls. 

Footing.  The  spread  portion  at  the  bottom  of  a  base- 
ment wall  or  column  to  prevent  settlement. 

Freestone.  A  soft,  easily  worked  variety  of  sand- 
stone. 

Fresco.  Painting  on  fresh  plaster  before  it  has  dried. 
Commonly,  though  incorrectly,  used  for  any  painting  on 
plaster. 

Frieze.  That  part  of  a  classic  entablature  between  the 
cornice  and  the  architrave.     See  Plate  63. 

Furring.  The  leveling  up  or  building  out  of  a  part  of  a 
wall  or  ceiling  by  wood  strips,  etc. 

Gable.  The  triangular  portion  of  an  end  wall  formed 
by  the  sloping  roof. 

Gable  Roof.     One  sloping  up  from  two  walls  only. 

Gain.  The  mortise  or  notch  cut  out  of  a  timber  to 
receive  the  end  of  a  beam. 

Gambrel  Roof.  A  roof  having  two  different  slopes  such 
as  the  house  of  Plate  24. 

Gargoyle.  A  projecting  ornamental  water  spout  to 
throw  the  roof  water  clear  of  the  walls  below. 

Girder.  A  large  horizontal  structural  member,  usu- 
ally heavier  than  a  beam  and  used  to  support  the  ends  of 
joists  and  beams,  or  to  carry  walls  o\'er  openings. 

Girt.  The  hea\y  horizontal  timber  carrying  the  second 
floor  joist  in  a  braced  frame  building.     See  Plate  46. 

Grade.     The  level  of  the  ground  around  a  building. 

Grille.  A  protective  metal  screen,  sometimes  highly 
ornamented. 

Groined  Vaulting.  A  ceiling  fornu'd  by  several  inter- 
secting cyliiiilii(  al  vaults. 

Ground.  Stri])S  of  wood  the  thickness  of  the  plaster 
of  a  wall,  secured  to  the  framing.  They  aid  the  ])lasterer 
and  afterward  serve  as  nailing  strips  for  securing  the  wood 
finish. 

Grout.  A  thin  mortar  for  filling  u]i  spaces  dilTicult  of 
access  or  where  the  liea\-ier  mortar  would  not  penetrate. 

Guttae.  The  drops  used  for  enriching  the  (Ireek  Doric- 
Order  of  Plate  64  :in(l  the  Mulular  Doric  of  Plate  65. 
They  are  lylindrical  in  the  first  and  conical  in  the  second 
example. 

Gutter.  A  trough  or  depression  for  carrying  olT 
water. 


152 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


Halving.  A  method  of  splicing  the  ends  of  two  timbers 
by  cutting  half  of  each  away  and  overlapping  these  parts. 
The  joint  is  thus  the  same  size  as  the  timbers. 

Hanging  Stile.  The  vertical  part  of  a  door  or  casement 
window  lo  wiiich  the  hinge  is  fastened. 

Hatching.  The  shading  of  an  imaginary  cut  surface 
by  a  series  of  parallel  lines.     See  Plate  21. 

Head  Room.  The  \ertical  clearance  on  a  stairway  or  in 
a  room.     .See  Plate  59. 

Hearth.  The  vitreous  portion  of  a  tloor  in  front  of  a 
fireplace.     See  also  Back  Hearth  and  Plate  61. 

Heel.     The  end  of  a  rafter  that  rests  on  the  wall  j^late. 

Herring-bone.  The  name  given  to  masonry  work  when 
laid  up  in  a  zig-zag  pattern.  It  is  usually  found  in  brick 
work. 

Hip-roof.     One  sloping  up  from  all  walls  of  the  building. 

Hood.  The  small  roof  over  a  doorway,  supported  by 
brackets  or  consoles. 

House  Drain.  The  horizontal  piping  beneath  the 
basement  lloor  of  a  building,  which  carries  off  the  discharge 
from  all  soil  and  waste  lines  to  a  point  outside  the  building. 

House  Sewer.  The  drainage  pipe  connecting  with  the 
house  drain  at  a  point  about  5  feet  outside  the  building 
and  leading  to  the  sewer  or  other  place  of  disposal. 

Housiog.  The  part  cut  out  of  one  member  so  as  to 
receive  another.  Sec  the  housing  of  the  stair  step  into 
the  wall  string  on  Plate  59. 

Hypotrachelium.  That  part  of  the  Greek  Doric  capital 
that  occurs  directly  beneath  the  annulets  of  the  echinus. 

Impost.  The  top  member  of  a  wall,  pier,  etc.,  from 
which  springs  an  arch.  It  may  be  the  capital  of  a  pier  or 
just  a  moulding  on  a  wall. 

Incise.  To  cut  into,  as  letters  incised  or  carved  into 
stone. 

Intercolumniation.     The  clear  space  between  columns. 

Intrados.  The  name  applied  to  the  lower  or  inside 
curving  line  of  an  arch. 

Jamb.  The  inside  vertical  face  of  a  door  or  window 
frame. 

Joist.  The  framing  timbers  which  arc  the  direct 
support  of  a  floor. 

Key-stone.     The  center  top  stone  of  an  arch. 

Label.     The  ornamental  drip  moulding  over  an  arch. 

Lancet  Window.  .\  high  narrow  window  pointed  like 
a  lance  at  the  top. 

Lantern.  The  small  structure  projecting  above  a  dome 
or  roof  for  light  or  ventilation. 

Lean-to.  A  small  building  against  the  side  of  another 
and  having  a  roof  sloping  away  from  the  larger  structure. 

Lintel.  The  horizontal  structural  member  supporting 
the  wall  over  an  opening. 

Lobby.     .\n  entrance  hall  or  waiting  room. 

Loggia.  .\  hall  within  a  building  but  open  on  one 
side,  this  side  being  usually  supported  by  a  colonnade. 


Lookout.  A  short  timber  for  supporting  tlu-  projecting 
cornice.     See  the  bo.\  cornice  of  Plate  55. 

Louver.  A  ventilating  window  covered  by  sloping 
slats  to  exclude  rain. 

Mansard  Roof.  A  hipped  roof  having  two  slopes 
similar  to  the  gambrel  roof  of  Plate  24. 

Mantel.  The  shelf  and  other  ornamental  work  around 
a  ti replace. 

Marquetry.  An  ornamental  surface  built  up  of  small 
pieces  of  various  hard  woods  to  form  a  pattern.  Inlaid 
work. 

Medallion.  A  round  or  elli])tical  raised  surface,  usually 
for  ornamental  purposes. 

Meeting  Rail.  The  horizontal  rails  of  window  frames 
that  fit  together  when  the  window  is  closed.     See  Plate  50. 

Metope.  That  part  of  the  frieze  between  the  triglyphs 
of  the  I  )oric  Order.     See  Plates  64,  65,  and  66. 

Mezzanine.  A  low  secondary  story  contained  in  a 
higli  storv. 

Mill-work.  The  finished  wood  work,  machined  and 
[)artly  assembled  at  the  mill. 

Minaret.     A  Turkish  turret  with  balconies. 

Miter.  A  beveled  surface  cut  on  the  ends  of  mouldings, 
etc.,  that  they  may  member  at  points  where  they  change 
direction. 

ModiUion.  An  ornamental  bracket  sujjporting  a  cor- 
nice.    See  Plate  70. 

Module.  An  accepted  division  for  measuring  propor- 
tions of  the  Orders  of  Architecture.  It  is  taken  as  one- 
half  of  the  base  diameter  of  the  column.  See  page  105 
and  Plate  70. 

Mullion.  The  large  vertical  division  of  a  window 
opening.  In  grouped  windows  it  is  the  member  that 
separates  the  sash  of  each  unit. 

Muntins.  The  small  members  that  divide  the  glass  in 
a  window  frame. 

Mutules.  The  rectangular  blocks  supporting  the 
cornice  of  the  Mutular  Doric  Order.     See  Plate  65. 

Narthex.     A  hall  or  lobby  at  the  entrance  of  a  church. 

Nave.  The  main  or  central  portion  of  a  church  audito- 
rium. 

Necking.  The  middle  member  of  a  simi)le  column 
capital.     See  Plate  63. 

Newel.  The  post  where  the  handrail  of  a  stair  starts  or 
changes  direction. 

Niche.  A  recess  in  a  wall;  often  to  accommodate  a 
piece  of  statuary. 

Ogee.  A  reverse  or  letter  S  curve.  Applied  also  to 
mouldings  of  this  section. 

Oriel  Window.  A  projecting  upper  story  window.  A 
small  bay. 

Orientation.     The  direction  of  facing  of  a  building. 

Paleography.  A  study  of  ancient  inscriptions  and 
writings. 


1.53 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


Panel.  A  piece  of  wood  framed  about  by  other  pieces. 
It  may  be  raised  above  or  sunk  below  the  face  of  the  fram- 
ing pieces. 

Parapet.     That  part  of  a  wall  projecting  above  a  roof. 

Parting  Strip.  The  strip  in  a  double  hung  window  frame 
that  keeps  the  upper  and  lower  sash  apart.     See  Plate  49. 

Parts.  The  thirty  equal  divisions  into  which  the  module 
is  divided  for  convenience.     See  page  105  and  Plate  70. 

Party  Wall.  A  division  wall  common  to  two  adjacent 
pieces  of  property. 

Pendent.  Usually  applied  to  ornamental  hanging  parts 
of  a  Gothic  vaulted  ceiling. 

Pendentives.  The  structure  at  the  upper  corners  of  a 
square  building  which  rounds  the  building  at  the  top 
preparatory  to  receiving  a  round  dome.  They  may  be  in 
the  form  of  brackets  or  arches. 

Pent-roof.     A  lean-to  or  roof  sloping  one  way  only. 

Perch.  A  means  of  measuring  quantities  of  rubble 
stone.     A  perch  contains  16}^  cubic  feet. 

Pier.  A  rectangular  masonry  support  either  free- 
standing or  built  into  a  wall. 

Pilaster.  When  an  attached  pier  becomes  very  high 
in  proportion  to  its  width,  it  is  called  a  pilaster. 

Piling.  Wood  or  concrete  posts  driven  down  into  soft 
earth  to  provide  a  safe  footing  for  heavy  loads.  See 
Plate  39. 

Pitch  of  Roof.  A  term  applied  to  the  amount  of  slope. 
It  is  found  by  dividing  the  height  by  the  span. 

Plan.     Sec  Floor  Plan. 

Plancher  or  Planceer.  The  soffit  of  a  cornice  or  corona. 
See  the  bo,x  cornice  of  Plate  55. 

Plaster  Ground.     See  Ground. 

Plate.  The  top,  horizontal  timber  of  a  wall.  The 
attic  joist,  roof  rafters,  etc.,  rest  on  and  are  secured  to  the 
plate. 

Plinth.  The  block  that  forms  the  bottom  member  of  a 
column  base. 

Plumb.     Vertical;  parallel  to  a  plumb  line. 

Podium.  The  die  or  body  of  a  continuous  pedestal. 
See  Plate  62. 

Porch.     A  covered  shelter  on  the  outside  of  a  building. 

Priming.  The  first  coat  of  paint  or  varnish,  mi.\ed  and 
applied  so  as  to  fill  the  pores  of  the  surface  i)re])aratory 
to  receiving  the  subsequent  coats. 

Proscenium.  The  front  part  of  a  theatre  stage  includ- 
ing the  arch  over  the  stage. 

Pulley  Stile.  The  vertical  sides  of  a  double-hung 
winrjow  frame  on  which  are  fastened  ihe  pulleys  for  the 
sash  weights.     See  Plate  49. 

Purlins.  Structural  memljcrs  spanning  from  truss  lo 
truss  and  supjjorling  the  rafters  of  a  roof. 

Quoins.  Large  cut  stones  at  the  corners  of  a  masonry 
wall.  They  form  an  ornamental  corner  and  also  a  stop- 
page for  the  stone  or  brick  work  of  the  wall  proper. 


Rail.  The  horizontal  top  member  of  a  balustrade. 
Also  the  horizontal  members  of  windows  and  doors.  See 
Plates  49  and  52. 

Raking.     Inclined  from  the  horizontal. 

Random  Work.  Applied  to  stone  work  that  is  not  laid 
up  in  regular  order  but  just  as  the  stones  come  to  hand. 

Rebate.  A  recessed  angle  to  recei\'e  a  window  or  door 
frame,  etc.     See  Plate  51. 

Regula.  The  plane  block  beneath  the  triglyph  and 
taenia  of  the  Doric  Order.     See  Plate  66. 

Relieving  Arch.  A  masonry  arch  built  over  an  opening 
to  sujiport  the  backing  of  a  wall  when  the  wall  face  is 
carried  by  a  lintel. 

Reredos.     The  screen  behind  an  altar. 

Return.  The  turning  back  of  a  moulding,  belt-course, 
etc.,  into  the  wall  on  which  it  is  located  or  around  a 
corner  of  the  building. 

Reveal.  The  ]irojection  of  a  frame  or  moulding  beyond 
the  wall  which  carries  it.  .'Mso  the  jamb  of  a  window  or 
door  frame  between  the  window  or  door  and  the  face  of 
the  wall. 

Ridge.     The  top  edge  of  the  roof  where  two  slopes  meet. 

Rostrum.     An  elevated  speaker's  platform. 

Rotunda.     The  circular  space  under  a  dome. 

Roughcast.  Stucco  when  thrown  against  the  wall  to 
form  a  rough  finish.  Sometimes  applied  to  roughly 
troweled  work. 

Rubble.     Roughly  broken  quarry  stone. 

Rubrication.  The  coloring  of  a  background  by  paint, 
enamels,  etc. 

Ruling  Pen.     See  page  10  and  Plate  3. 

Saddle.  .\  small  double-sloping  roof  to  carry  the  water 
away  from  the  back  of  chimneys,  etc. 

Salon.     A  large  and  magnificent  room. 

Scagliola.     A  plaster  imitation  of  colored  marble. 

Scale.  .•\n  instrument  used  for  measurement.  See 
page  g  and  Plate  3.  Scale  in  design  is  the  feeling  of  size 
which  is  produced  by  the  judicious  use  of  familiar  details 
such  as  steps,  windows,  etc. 

Scamillus.  The  groove  which  separates  the  h\po- 
trachelium  or  necking  of  the  Greek  Doric  column  from 
the  shaft.     See  Plate  64. 

Scantling.  A  piece  of  framing  timber  about  2  by 
4  inches  in  section. 

Scarfing.  A  method  of  lap-jointing  of  timbers  in  such 
a  way  that  the  joint  is  no  larger  than  the  seition  of  the 
timbers. 

Scratch  Coat.  The  first  coat  of  plaster  which  is 
scratched  or  scored  in  form  a  good  bond  lor  the  second 
coat. 

Screeds.  Strijis  of  plaster  about  S  indies  wide  and 
the  depth  of  the  lirsl  two  coals,  which  are  |)ut  on  first 
and  trued  up  carefully  to  serve  as  guides  in  bringing  the 
|)lasterefl  surfaces  lo  true  planes. 


154 


ARLIIITIXTLR.VL   DRAWING 


Scribing.  'Vo  mark  or  til  one  edge  of  a  board,  elc,  lo 
an  irregular  surface. 

Shaft.  'I'hal  part  of  a  column  l)etween  ilie  lapital  and 
the  base.     See  Plates  62,  63,  etc. 

Sheathing.  The  rougli  l)oardinp  on  the  outsideof  a  wail 
or  roof  owr  which  is  laid  the  finished  siding  or  the  shingles. 

Shoring.  Timbers  braced  against  a  wall  to  form  a 
temjiorary  support  where  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
wall  below. 

Show  Rafter.  .\  short  rafter,  often  ornamented,  where 
it  may  be  seen  below  the  cornice.     See  Plate  57. 

Sill.  The  stone  or  wood  member  across  the  bottom  of 
a  door  or  window  opening  on  the  outside  of  the  building. 
Also  the  bottom  timber  on  which  a  building  frame  rests. 
See  Plate  46. 

Site.     The  location  of  a  building. 

Skew-back.  The  first  stone  of  an  arch,  having  a 
horizontal  bottom  and  a  sloping  top  face. 

Skirting.     See  Base  Board. 

Sleepers.  The  timbers  laid  on  a  firm  foundation  to 
carry  and  secure  the  superstructure. 

Slip  Joint.  A  joint  made  so  as  to  allow  a  certain  amount 
of  movement  of  the  parts  joined  without  sjilitting  or 
otherwise  injuring  them. 

Smoke  Chamber.  That  part  of  the  Hue  directly  above 
the  fireplace.     See  Plate  61. 

Soffit.  The  underneath  surface  of  a  beam,  lintel,  arch, 
etc. 

Soil  Pipe.  The  branch  pipe  that  connects  the  closet  or 
urinal  with  the  soil  stack. 

Soil  Stack.  The  vertical  pipe  line  that  leads  from  the 
soil  pipe  to  the  house  drain. 

Span.  The  distance  between  supports  of  a  joist,  beam, 
etc. 

Specifications.  The  written  or  printed  description  of 
materials,  workmanship,  etc.,  that  accompany  the  working 
drawings  of  a  building. 

Standing  Finish.     The  wood  finish  secured  to  the  walls. 

Stile.  The  vertical  members  of  a  built  up  part  such  as 
a  door,  window,  panel,  etc.     See  Plate  52. 

Stool.  The  wood  shelf  across  the  bottom  and  inside  of 
a  window.     See  Plate  49. 

String.  The  supporting  timber  at  the  end  of  stair  steps. 
See  Plate  59. 

Stucco.     Cement  plaster  for  outside  work. 

Style  (of  architecture).  The  distinguishing  character- 
istics as  fi.xed  by  the  Order  used  or  by  the  type  of  roof, 
windows,  doors,  walls  and  other  details  in  combination. 

Stylobate.  The  stepped  base  of  a  Greek  temple.  See 
Plate  64. 

Sump.  A  depression  in  a  roof,  etc.,  to  receive  the  rain 
water  and  deliver  it  to  the  down-spout.     See  Plate  55. 

Taenia.  The  flat  division  band  between  the  architrave 
and  the  frieze  of  the  Doric  Order.     See  Plate  64. 


Templet.  A  pattern  for  use  in  cutting  irregular  stones 
suih  as  the  voussoirs  of  an  arch,  etc. 

Terrace.     A  raised  bank  of  earth. 

Terra  Cotta.  A  burned  cla\-  of  line  finality,  much  used 
for  ornamental  work  on  the  exterior  of  buildings. 

Thimble.  The  short  horizontal  [)ipe  leading  through  a 
chimney  wall  into  the  Hue. 

Threshold.  The  stone,  wood  or  metal  jiiece  directly 
under  a  door. 

Throat.  The  opening  from  a  firei)lace  into  the  smoke 
clianiber.     See  Plate  61. 

Tongue.  A  projecting  bead  cut  on  the  edge  of  one 
board  to  fit  into  a  corresponding  groove  on  the  edge  of 
another  piece. 

Tracery.  Ornamental  curving  bars  across  an  opening. 
They  usually  occur  in  Gothic  buildings  and  are  cut  from 
stone.     See  Plate  37. 

Transom.  The  horizontal  member  which  divides  an 
opening  into  parts;  see  Plate  51.  It  is  also  applied  to  a 
small  window  built  over  a  door. 

Transom  Bar.     Same  as  the  first  use  of  Transom. 

Trap.  A  water-seal  in  a  sewage  system  lo  jjrevent 
sewer  gas  from  entering  the  building. 

Tread.     The  horizontal  board  or  surface  of  a  step. 

TreUis.  .'\n  ornamental  lattice  made  up  of  wooden 
strips  to  support  vines. 

Triangle.  One  of  the  drawing  instruments  described 
on  page  9  and  Plate  3. 

Triglyph.  A  groo\ed  plate,  ornamenting  the  frieze  of 
the  Doric  Order.     See  Plates  64,  65,  and  66. 

Trim.     The  finishing  frame  around  an  opening. 

Trimmer  Arch.  The  supporting  arch  beneath  a  hearth. 
See  Plate  61. 

Truss.  A  framework  made  up  of  triangular  units  for 
supporting  loads  over  long  spans.     See  Plate  36. 

T  Square.  A  drawing  instrument  for  ruling  parallel 
horizontal  lines.     See  page  9  and  Plate  3. 

Tympanum.  The  triangular  portion  of  wall  under  the 
sloping  cornice  of  a  classic  building. 

Underpinning.  A  new  part  of  a  wall  or  pier,  built 
under  an  existing  part. 

Valley.  The  gutter  formed  by  the  intersection  of  two 
roof  slopes. 

Valley  Rafter.  The  rafter  extending  along  under  a 
valley. 

Vault.     An  arched  ceiling  or  roof. 

Veneer.  A  thin  covering  of  valuable  material  over  a 
less  expensive  bod\\ 

Vent  Pipes.  Small  ventilating  pipes  extending  from 
each  fixture  of  the  plumbing  system  to  the  vent  stack. 

Vent  Stack.  The  vertical  pipe  connecting  with  the 
vent  pipes  and  extending  through  the  roof.  It  carries  off 
the  gasses  and  prevents  the  water-seal  from  siphoning 
out  of  the  traps. 


15s 


ARCHITECTUR.\L  DRAWING 


Verge  Boards.  The  boards  suspended  from  the  verge 
of  a  gable.     They  are  sometimes  highly  ornamented. 

Vestibule.     A  small  entrance  room. 

Vista.  A  view  down  an  avenue  or  a  path  between 
shrubbery,  etc. 

Volute.  A  feature  of  the  Ionic  capital.  See  Plates 
67  and  68. 

Voussoir.     One  of  the  sections  or  blocks  of  an  arch. 

Wainscot.  An  ornamental  or  protective  covering  of 
walls,  often  consisting  of  wood  panels. 

Wall  Plate.     See  Plate  46. 

Waste  Pipe.  The  pipe  connecting  lavatories  and  sinks 
with  the  waste  stack. 


Waste  Stack.  The  vertical  pipe  which  conducts  waste 
water  from  the  waste  pipes  to  the  house  drain. 

Water  Table.  A  projecting,  sloping  member  around  a 
building  near  the  ground  to  throw  the  rain  water  away 
from  the  wall. 

Weather  Boarding.  The  finished  horizontal  boarding 
of  an  outside  wall.     See  Plate  24. 

Wing.  A  section  of  a  building  extending  out  from  the 
main  part. 

Wreath.  The  curved  portion  of  a  hand  rail  as  at  a 
landing.     See  Plate  59. 

Yoke.  The  horizontal  top  member  of  a  window  frame. 
See  Plate  49. 


156 


INDEX 

A  Center  lines 47 

Channels  of  Greek  Doric 109 

Abacus,  see  Orders  of  Architecture.  Church  door  detail Plate  54 

Acanthus  leaf  125      Classic  orders 105 

Plate  74  Plates  62-73 

Acoustics,  see  Reference  books.  Cleveland  discount  building 77 

Alphabets,  see  Lettering.  Plates  39-45 

Ampersand 135      Column  entasis 123 

Angular  perspective 23                                                                    Plate  73 

Annulets,  see  Orders  of  Architecture.  Columns 105 

Arabic  numerals 135      Combination  frame Plate  46 

Plates  78  &  79  Comparison  of  Orders  of  Architecture  Plate  62 

Architect's  scale 9      Compasses 10 

Architectural  and  building  terms 151-156      Composite  Order 121 

design,  see  Reference  books.  Plate  72 

equipment,  see  Reference  books.  Composition  in  lettering 137 

history,  ife  Reference  books.  Plates  80,  81, 

magazines 149                                                                    83  &  84 

ornament,  see  Reference  books.  Cone,  shadow  of 37 

rendering 43      Construction  and  superintendence, 

Architecture,  Orders  of 105                     see  Reference  books. 

Plates  62-73  Contour  line 65 

Arris 109      •                                                              Plate  31 

Artificial  light,  see  Hand  books  on  Contour  map 65 

illumination.  Plate  31 

Attic  Ionic  base Plate  69 113      Conventional  light  ray ^3 

shadows  of Plate  14  Coordinate  paper,  use  of 53 

Attic  Ionic  Order Plate  69  Corinthian  Order 

Greek 121 


B 


Roman 121 

Plates  70  &  71 

Balanced  title 137  shadows  of Plate  17 

Plate  80  Cornice  details Plates    55,    56 

Balloon  frame Plate  46  &  57 

Basement  window  details Plates  47  &  48  Cost    of    buildings,    see    Reference 

Battened  door Plate  52  books. 

Bedrooms 19      Current  architectural  magazines 149 

Bench  mark 65      Cylinder,  shadow  of 37 

Blue  prints 52      Cyma  recta,  see  Mouldings Plate  75 

Books,  reference 147-150      Cyma  reversa,  see  Mouldings Plate  75 

Box  title 137      Cymatium,   see   Orders   of   Archi- 

Braced  door Plate  52  lecture. 

Bristol  board 10 

Bronze  letters 141  t\ 

tablets Plate  81 

Building  terms 151-156      Denticular  Doric  Order 112 

Plate  66 
Q  Design,  architectural,  see  Reference 

books. 

Casement  window  details Plate  51  Detail  drawings 85 

Cavetto,  see  Mouldings Plate  75  Plates  46-61 

157 


INDEX 


Detail  paper lo 

Details,  scale 51 

books  on,  see  Reference  books. 

of  interior 73 

Plate  36 
Dictionary,  architectural,  see  Refer- 
ence books. 

Dimensioning 51 

Dimensions  of  furniture : iq 

Dining  room 16 

Dividers 10 

Door  details Plates    52,    53 

«fc  54 

Doors  and  windows,  location  of 47      Frontispiece. 

Doorways,  width  and  height  of 47 

Doric  Order,  Denticular 112 

Plate  66 
shadows  of Plate  15 

Double  hung  window  details Plates  49-50 

Double  swinging  door  detail Plate  52 

Drawing  board 9 

Drawing,  books  on,  see  Reference  books 

ink 10 

instruments 9-10 


Floor  system,  combination  tile  and  concrete 69 

Plate  ss 
reinforced  concrete 69 

Plate  is 

Floors  and  walls,  kitchen 17 

Footing  plan t-. Plate  39 

Formal  title 137 

Plate  80 
Foundation  plan,  office  building.  .  .    Plate  39 

Framing  of  wooden  buildings Plate  46 

French  curve g 

French  script 142 

Plate  84 


IV 


Furniture  dimensions ig 

Furniture  space 19 


Echinus,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 
Egyptian  Order,  Temple  of  Karnak  Plate  62 

Elevations 7-16-50 

of  broken  ashlar 

Plate  34 


Geometric  methods 1 1 

Plates  4  &  s 

Glass,  window 47 

Gothic  alphabet Plate  83 

Grade  line 50 

Graphic  methods  of  representation 5 

Plates  I  &  2 

Greek  Acanthus  leaf Plate  74 

Corinthian  Order 121 

Doric  Order 109 

Plate  64 

73      Ground  line  (perspective) 21 

Guide  to  study 143 


Ellipse 13      Guttae,  see  Orders  of  Architecture 

Enclosed  title 137      Gutter  detail Plates  55-57 

Plate  80 

Entablature 105                                                      11 

Entasis  of  column 123 

Plate  7^  iiand  books,  see  Reference  books. 

Equipment,  architectural,  see  Ref-  Hand-rail,  height  of 97 

erence  books.  Hand-rail,  turns Plate  59 

kitchen  17      Head  room  of  stairway loi 

mechanical,  see  Reference  books.  Plate  59 

Erasers 10      Heart  h 103 

Estimating,  see  Reference  books.  Heating,  see  Reference  l)ooks. 

Existing  buildings,  drawings  of 53      Hexagon 15 

History  of  .Architecture,  sec  Refer- 
ence books. 

F 

Horizon  line  (jierspective) 21 

Horizontal  dimensions 52 

Fabriano  paper 10 

Fillet,  see  Mouldings Plate  75  j 

Fire  place 103 

Plate  61  Illumination,  see  Reference  books. 

Fircproofing,  sec  Reference  books.  Inci.scd  letter Plate  80 

Floor  line 50      India  ink 10 


158 


INDEX 

Influence  of  stock  material 47      Methods  of  representation Plate  2 

Informal  title 137  Metope,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Plate  80  Module 105 

Ink 10     Mouldings 127 

Inscription  Icttcrinj; 141  Plate  75 

Plates  80  &  81  Mounting  drawing  or  water-color  paper 43 

Instruments,  drawing g-io      Mutular  Doric  Order 112 

Plate  3  Plate  65 

Introduction i  Mutules,  sec  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Ionic  Order 113 

Plate  67  N 

shadows  of Plate  16 

Ionic  volute iM      ^^'^'"'  "^""^'"^ ^'^^^  ^° 

Plate  68  Nosing  of  stair  step 97 

Irregular  curve 9 

Irregular  plan,  method  of  laying  out 67  O 

Plate  34 

Isometric,  axis 29      Oblique  axis 31 

drawing 5-29  drawing 5-31 

Plates  10  &  II  Platen 

lines 29      ^^^^  building Plates  39-45 

Old  English  alphabets Plate  83 

^  Old  Roman  alphabet 131 

Plates  78  &  79 

Kitchen 19      Orders  of  Architecture 105 

equipment 17  Plates  62-73 

floors  and  walls 17     Orientation  of  the  house 16 

light  and  ventilation 17      Ornament  on  elevations 51 

plan  of 17  Ornament,  see  Reference  books. 

score  card 17      Ornamental  mouldings Plate  75 

Orthographic  projection 5 

L  Plates  I  &  2 

Outline  of  study 143 

Laws,  see  Reference  books.  Outside  door  details Plate  53 

Ledged  door Plate  52  Ovolo,  see  Mouldings Plate  75 

Left-hand  door 47 

Lettering 131  p 

Plates  77-84 

See  also   Reference   books  on  Paintmg,  see  Reference  books. 

lettering.  Panelled  door Plate  52 

Lettering  pens 10      Paper 10 

Light  and  ventilation  of  kitchen 17      Parallel  perspective 25 

Light  ray,  conventional :2,7,      Parthenon,  Order  of Plate  64 

Lighting,  see   Reference   books  on  Pen  and  ink  board 10 

illumination.  see  Lettering  pens. 

Lining  of  fireplace 103      Pen,  see  Ruling  pen 10 

Living  room 16      Pencil g 

Pentagon 15 

j^  Perspective  drawing 21 

Plates  7  &  8 

Magazines,  architectural 149  angular '. 23 

Measuring  in  perspective 21  Cochran  residence Plate  9 

Measuring  up  present  work 53  parallel 25 

Mechanical  equipment,  see  Refer-  scale  of.  23 

ence  books.  See  also  Reference  books. 

159 


INDEX 


Pictorial  drawing 5      Roman  Numerals. 

Plate  I 

Picture  plane  (perspective) 21 

Piers 105 

Piling  plan 77 

Plate  39 
Piping,  see  Reference  books. 

Plan  symbols Plates  19  &  20 

Plans 7-16 

irregular  method  of  laying  out 67 

Plate  34 

of  concrete  and  tile  floor  systems 69 

Plate  ;i,^ 

of  reinforced  concrete  floors 69 

Plate  is 

piling 

Plate  39 
Plinth,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 
Plumbing,  see  Reference  books. 

Plumbing  fixtures Plate  19 

Pointed  arch 15 

Points  and  Unes,  shadows  of 35 

Practice  sheet 45 

water-color  rendering Plate  18 

PreUminary  sketches 16 

Plates  6-18 

Proportions  of  fireplace 103 

Plate  61 

of  the  Orders Plate  62 

of  stairways 97 

Publishers  of  architectural  books  and  magazines 

149-150 


13s 

RuHng  pen 10 


Scale 9 

details 51 

determination  of 46 

drawings 46 

Plates  19-45 

of  details 85 

of  perspective  drawings 23 

of  preliminary  sketches 16 

of  working  drawings 46 

Scamilli,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 

77 

Schedule  of  concrete  girders,  etc 69 

Plate  ;^:} 

Score  card,  kitchen 17 

Scotia,  see  Orders  of  Architecture 

and Plate  75 

Script,  French 142 

Plate  84 

Section  through  stairway 101 

Plate  59 

Sections 7~5o 

Plate  36 73 

Shades  and  shadows ;^;^ 

See  also  Reference  books. 

Shading  of  letters 135 

Shadows,  conventional Plates  12  &  13 

of  cylinders,  cones  and  spheres 37 

of  points  and  lines 35 

■D  Single  stroke  letters 137 

Plate  80 

Reference  books 147,  148,  149,  150     Site  plan 65 

Regula,  see  Orders  of  Architecture.  Plate  31 

Rendering 43      Sketches,  preliminary 16 

material  nee«led 43  Plates  6-18 

See  Reference  books.  Slicing  method  of  casting  shadows 39 

Residence  plans Plates  21-23  Plate  14 

elevation , Plates  24-28  Sliding  door  detail Plate  52 

details Plates  28-30  Smoke  shelf 103 

Right-hand  door 47      Sofiit,  sec  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Riser  of  stairway 97      S]iace  for  furniture 19 

Roman,  Acanthus  leaf Plate  74  Sphere,  shadow  of 37 

alphabet 131      Stairway 50-97 

Plates    77,    78  Plate  58 

&  79  details Plate  59 

Corinthian  Order 121      Station  point  (perspective) 21 

Plate  70  Slock  material,  influence  of 47 

Doric  Order 112      Stone  joints,  indication  of 50 

Plate  66  Plates    24,    34 

Ionic  Order 115  A'  37 

Plate  67  Story  height 50 

160 


INDEX 


77 

143 
109 


Structural  steel  building 

Plates  39-45 

Study,  imlline  of 

Stylobate 

Superintendence  and  construction, 
see  Reference  books. 

Symbols  for  ])lunibin<;  tixlurcs Plate  19 

building  material Plate  ig 

electric  fixtures I'lalc  20 

gas  |)ipin^.  I'lati-  20 

heating  and  \tniikumjj; Plate  20 


T 

Taenia,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Tangent,  circle  arcs 13 

Terms,  architectural  and  building 151-156 

Throat  of  fireplace 103 

Thumb  tacks 10 

Title  for  working  drawing Plates  21-31 

Titles 137 

Plate  80 
Torus,   see  Orders  of   Architecture 

and Plate  75 

Tracing 52 

paper 10 

Trajan's  column Plate  77 

Transparent  jiapcr                 10 

Tread  of  stairway 97 

Triangles 9 

Trigl\ph,  see  Orders  of  Architecture. 

Trimmer  arch 103 

T-square 9 

Tudor  arch 15 

Tuscan  Order 107 


Tuscan  order Plate  63 

Types  of  stairways Plate  58 

U 
Uncial  alphabet Plate  82 

V 

Vanishing  point  (perspective) 21 

Ventilation  of  kitchen 17 

Vertical  dimensions 52 

Volute,  Ionic 113 

Plate  68 

W 

Wall  thickness 47 

Walls  and  floors,  kitchen 17 

Washes,  water-color 45 

Water-color  paper 10 

Water-proofing,  see  Reference  books. 

Whatman  paper 10 

Width  of  doorways 47 

of  stairs 97 

Window  glass 47 

Windows  and  doors,  location  of 47 

Wooden  moulding 127 

Working  drawings 46 

Cleveland  Discount  Bldg. .  .    Plates  39-45 

Cochran  residence Plates  21-30 

dimensions  of 51 

Grace  Methodist  Church.  .  .   Plates  31-38 

method  of  laying  out 46 

reproduction  of 52 

scale  of 46 

title  for Plates  21-31 


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